Exploring the Museum

Ancient Greek jar painting of Athena in side profile, wearing war helmet and armor, holding spear and shield, goddess of wisdom and strategic warfare. Who is Athena Athena and the City of Athens The Parthenon: Athens' Gift to a Goddess What does it mean to be truly powerful? In Greek mythology, strength isn’t just about muscle or might… Let's learn with Athena! Who is Athena ? Athena is one of the most important and respected deities in Greek mythology, widely known as the goddess of wisdom, courage, and strategic warfare. Unlike many other gods and goddesses associated with raw physical strength or emotional extremes, Athena represents the power of intellect, reason, and thoughtful action. She is often called the "warrior of the mind" because her strength comes not only from physical prowess but also from clever strategy, insight, and fairness. As the daughter of Zeus, the king of the gods, Athena holds a distinguished place among the Olympians. Her birth itself is unique and symbolic, emphasizing her deep connection to wisdom and intellect. She famously emerged fully grown and armored from the head of Zeus, symbolizing that she is born from divine reason and thought. This extraordinary origin story sets her apart from other deities and underlines the powerful role her intellect plays in her divine identity. Athena embodies a unique combination of qualities, wisdom paired with courage, strength balanced with justice, that have made her a symbol of ideal leadership and protection. She is not only a fierce warrior but also a wise counselor who guides heroes and kings. Her calm and thoughtful nature contrasts sharply with the impulsive and chaotic characteristics often attributed to other gods of war, such as Ares. In addition to her warrior role, Athena is the goddess of crafts, arts, and skillful handiwork. This aspect highlights her connection to creativity, intelligence, and practical knowledge. She is credited with teaching humans important skills like weaving, pottery, and metalworking, enabling civilization to flourish through the development of arts and technology. Athena is closely associated with the city of Athens, which was named in her honor following a famous mythological contest between her and the sea god Poseidon. The city’s inhabitants chose Athena as their patron deity after she gifted them the olive tree, a symbol of peace, prosperity, and sustainability. This association makes her not only a protector of warriors but also a guardian of the city, law, and civilized life. Iconically, Athena is depicted wearing a helmet and armor, symbolizing her role as a warrior prepared for battle. She often carries a shield that bears the terrifying head of the Gorgon Medusa, a powerful symbol of protection and might. Her sacred animal, the owl, is widely recognized as a symbol of wisdom and vigilance. Additionally, the olive tree she gifted to Athens represents peace and prosperity, underscoring the balanced nature of her power. Unlike many mythological figures driven by passion or chaos, Athena’s character is defined by calm intelligence, thoughtful planning, and a strong moral compass. She inspires not only warriors but also thinkers, artists, and leaders who value knowledge and justice. Athena’s enduring presence in Greek mythology highlights the vital importance of wisdom and strategy in all aspects of life, reminding us that true strength is often found in the mind. Ever wondered how Athens got its name? Join me as we explore the fascinating story behind the city! Athena and the City of Athens Athena’s connection to the city of Athens is one of the most famous and enduring stories in Greek mythology. According to legend, the city was originally contested by two powerful deities: Athena, goddess of wisdom and strategic warfare, and Poseidon, god of the sea and earthquakes. Both gods desired to become the city’s patron and offer a gift to its people. Poseidon struck the ground with his trident, creating a saltwater spring or sometimes a horse, symbolizing strength and naval power. Athena, however, offered the olive tree, a gift rich with symbolism and practical value. The olive tree represented peace, prosperity, and nourishment, providing olives for food, oil for cooking and lamps, and wood for tools and shelter. The people of the city, recognizing the lasting benefits of Athena’s gift, chose her as their patron deity. In her honor, the city was named Athens, and she became its divine protector. This myth reflects not only the values of the Athenians but also the qualities that Athena embodied: wisdom, strategic thinking, and a commitment to peace rather than mere brute strength. Athena’s guardianship of Athens extended beyond mythology into everyday life. She was revered as a goddess who safeguarded the city’s laws, culture, and democratic ideals. The Parthenon, the grand temple on the Acropolis, stands as a lasting testament to her importance. This magnificent structure housed a massive statue of Athena and symbolized the city’s devotion to her guidance and protection. In many ways, Athena’s relationship with Athens symbolizes the ideal balance between intellect and power, peace and defense, a balance that became central to the identity of the city itself. Pathenon, Athens, Greece What makes the Parthenon more than just a ruin of the past? Let’s explore this iconic symbol of Athens. The Parthenon: Athens' Gift to a Goddess In the 5th century BCE, after Athens emerged victorious in the Persian Wars, the city entered its golden age. Under the leadership of Pericles, the Athenians began building the Parthenon: a temple not only to honor their protector Athena, but to express who they were as a people, intelligent, resilient, and devoted to something greater. Built on the Acropolis, the sacred hill that overlooks Athens, the Parthenon was a marvel of classical design. Its architects, Iktinos and Kallikrates , shaped it with perfect proportions and subtle curves that created visual harmony. The structure was not just impressive in size, it was a symbol of order, logic, and balance, values deeply rooted in Athenian life. Inside the temple stood a colossal statue of Athena Parthenos, crafted by the sculptor Phidias. Made of ivory and gold, the statue showed Athena in full armor, holding a shield in one hand and a figure of Nike, the goddess of victory, in the other. For Athenians, this wasn’t just a sculpture, it was the physical presence of their patron goddess, watching over the city she helped create. Carved into the marble of the Parthenon were scenes from myths and civic life. The east pediment showed the dramatic birth of Athena from the head of Zeus. The west pediment depicted the legendary contest between Athena and Poseidon. In that myth, Poseidon offered the city a spring of saltwater, while Athena gave an olive tree, symbolizing peace, prosperity, and nourishment. The people chose Athena’s gift, and in her honor, the city took her name. Along the inner walls, the Ionic frieze may have represented the Panathenaic Festival, a grand procession held every four years in Athena’s honor. Citizens of all ranks joined in the celebration, bringing offerings and weaving a sacred robe to present to her statue. It was a reminder that Athena’s presence wasn’t distant or divine alone, she was woven into the daily life, values, and celebrations of the people. Over time, the Parthenon changed roles. It became a Christian church, then an Islamic mosque. It endured damage from war and suffered the loss of many of its original sculptures. Even so, it remained a powerful symbol, not just of ancient Athens, but of human creativity, belief, and legacy. The Parthenon was never simply a temple. It was a reflection of the ideals Athena stood for: wisdom, balance, protection, and peace. Through its columns and carvings, Athens told the world who they were and who they hoped to be, under the watchful gaze of their goddess, Athena. author: The Museum of Time , Asal Mirzaei Last updated: 9 august 2025

The Qajar period represents one of the most significant chapters in the history of Iranian clothing. During this era, garments were not merely functional means of covering the body but also powerful symbols of social identity, class distinction, and cultural transformation. As Iran’s contact with Europe expanded, fashion began to change as well, resulting in a fascinating fusion of tradition and modernity within Iranian attire. Content table:  Women’s Fashion and clothing in the Qajar period  Men’s Fashion and clothing in the Qajar period  Transformation of fashion and western influence  Clothing in Qajar photography Conclusion  Women’s Fashion and Clothing in the Qajar Peri od Women’s garments in the Qajar era were a world of texture, color, and layered elegance. A typical outfit began with a long dress of cotton or shimmering silk, soft against the skin and often patterned with delicate floral prints. Over this, women wore a short, fitted jacket or vest, its edges embroidered with metallic threads that caught the light as they moved. Beneath it all were the famously wide trousers, bright, billowing, and full of personality. In some regions, a short, flared skirt was slipped over the trousers, adding an extra layer of movement and charm. Hair was usually braided, sometimes in two thick plaits, sometimes in several narrow ones, and then covered with a silk scarf or a flowing chador that framed the face. For formal gatherings, weddings, celebrations, visits to the royal court, women adorned themselves with small decorative hats, perched lightly atop their scarves, adding a touch of sophistication. These garments were never plain. They were alive with creativity: embroidered roses blooming across sleeves, sequins shimmering like tiny stars, and mirror work glinting with every step. The colors were bold and confident, deep reds, turquoise blues, saffron yellows, each piece reflecting not just fashion, but a sense of identity and joy that defined the era’s feminine aesthetics. Another detail that stands out (especially when looking at Qajar portrait paintings) is the delicate lace that often trimmed women’s garments. Lace was not as common in everyday dress, but in formal portraits, it became a symbol of refinement and status. You can see it framing the edges of sleeves, peeking out from under embroidered jackets, or forming intricate collars that softened the bold shapes of Qajar fashion. Painters of the era loved lace. They highlighted every tiny loop and floral pattern, letting it fall like soft white clouds against richly colored fabrics. In many portraits, the lace appears almost weightless, as if a gentle breeze could lift it from the sitter’s shoulders. Sometimes it was imported, sometimes handmade, but always treated as something precious. These lace details created a striking contrast with the vibrant silks, metallic embroidery, and mirror work, adding a layer of delicacy to the powerful visual identity of Qajar women. In paintings, this lace wasn’t just decoration; it helped shape how women were remembered. It softened their posture, framed their faces with light, and emphasized the elegance and dignity that Qajar artists loved to capture. Men’s Fashion and Clothing in the Qajar Period Courtly men of the Qajar era dressed with a restrained yet unmistakable grandeur. Their robes ( labadeh  and the long, sweeping qaba ) were tailored from velvets so deep they seemed to drink the light, or brocades woven with subtle gold threads that glimmered when they moved. These garments flowed gracefully, giving their posture a quiet authority. Beneath them, their trousers were deliberately plain and dark, secured with a soft fabric belt. The simplicity of the trousers only made the richness of the upper garments more striking.  On ceremonial occasions, a sword or dagger rested at their side, not out of necessity, but as a mark of lineage, honor, and the long-standing etiquette of the court. And atop it all stood the tall felt Qajar hat. In portraits of the era, these hats rise like pillars of authority. They were symbols of masculinity, dignity, and rank, an instant signifier of one’s place in the social order. To wear one was to step into a role, to carry oneself as a man of the court, bound by tradition yet wrapped in elegance. But the Shah (The King), he was a world of his own. The king’s garments were crafted not just to be worn, but to be seen. His robes were often covered in elaborate embroidery, dense with gold and silver thread, forming gardens of pattern across the fabric. Jewels (emeralds, diamonds, rubies) were stitched into collars or sewn into belts, sparkling under candlelight and reflecting the power concentrated in his figure. His coats were richly lined with fur, giving weight and presence to his silhouette as he moved through palaces and audience halls. The Shah’s headgear elevated him even further, literally and symbolically. While courtly men wore tall felt hats, the Shah’s crown and ceremonial caps were extravagantly decorated with gems, feathers, and metalwork. Each piece declared sovereignty, wealth, and divine favor. In some portraits, the king’s garments seem almost too radiant for the canvas, as if the artist struggled to capture the shimmer of every thread and stone. Altogether, Qajar men (especially those of the court) dressed not merely to cover the body, but to express identity, hierarchy, and the pageantry of a world where clothing spoke as boldly as words. Transformation of Fashion and Western Influence From the reign of Naser al-Din Shah onward, a quiet but unmistakable shift began to unfold in Iranian fashion. As the Shah himself traveled to Europe and returned with tales of Parisian salons, glittering theaters, and modern photography studios, Western aesthetics slowly seeped into the urban wardrobe. Women in cities like Tehran and Tabriz started experimenting with new silhouettes: puffy dresses with layered skirts, fitted bodices that hinted at the European corset, and delicate blouses with lace-trimmed collars that felt completely different from traditional garments. These changes did not happen overnight. They drifted into society almost like whispers, first through the royal court, then through aristocratic households, and eventually into the wider public. Photography played a remarkable role in this cultural exchange. With the rise of portrait studios, families had their photographs taken wearing the latest fashions, capturing not just their likenesses but their aspirations. Each photograph was a small window into Europe, a visual message of what elegance could look like across continents. Magazines, imported fabrics, and even illustrated catalogues found their way into Iran, offering new patterns, sleeve shapes, and ways of draping fabric. Little by little, wardrobes grew more eclectic. Traditional garments remained, but now they lived side by side with ruffled sleeves, cinched waists, and skirts that swayed with a distinctly European rhythm. This era marked the beginning of a fascinating blend, a moment when Iranian fashion began to weave foreign influences into its own rich textile traditions, giving rise to styles that felt modern and yet uniquely local. Clothing in Qajar photography Studio portraits from the Qajar era are among the most important visual sources for understanding the clothing styles of the time. As photography spread through Iran (first within the royal court and later among urban families) it captured people in their finest attire, preserving details that written descriptions often overlooked. In these carefully arranged studio photos, every fold of fabric, every piece of jewelry, and every embroidered motif becomes a clue to the era’s aesthetic world. The photographs taken during and after the time of Naser al-Din Shah, who personally encouraged the art of photography, offer remarkably clear insights into how people dressed, posed, and presented themselves. Fine silks, brocaded coats, lace trims, and layered garments appear with striking precision under the camera’s still gaze. Even the textures of hats, belts, and veils can be studied frame by frame. These studio portraits do more than document fashion, they reveal aspirations, social roles, and the subtle blending of Iranian and Western influences. Thanks to these photographs, the clothing of the Qajar era lives on not just as memory or description, but as vivid, tangible evidence of a transformative period in Iranian material culture. Conclusion Qajar-era fashion reflects a dynamic intersection of tradition, identity, and emerging global influence. Through its layered garments, intricate embellishments, and gradual incorporation of Western styles, it reveals how Iranian society navigated continuity and change during a transformative historical period. Thanks to the preservation of studio photography and surviving textiles, the visual language of Qajar clothing remains accessible today, offering scholars and designers a tangible connection to the past. Ultimately, the fashion of this era stands not only as a cultural artifact but as an enduring source of inspiration, demonstrating the adaptability and richness of Iranian artistic expression. author: The Museum of Time , Banafsheh Mehrparvar 20 November 2025, lastest update

The burnt city of Iran, Sistan and Baluchistan province. Over 5,200 years ago , an extraordinary civilization flourished in eastern Iran, one that pioneered astonishing advancements such as early brain surgery  and even the creation of artificial eyes . Today, this ancient city stands proudly among Iran’s UNESCO World Heritage Sites . Let’s dive into the story of Shahr-e Sukhteh  ( The Burnt City ), a place where innovation once burned as brightly as the desert sun. Content table: Geography and Location The Story Behind the Name Continue Your Journey  The map that shows where shahr-e sukhteh is located. Geography and location of the burnt city How did the Burnt City rise between two rivers that no longer exist? Shahr-e Sukhteh (شهر سوخته) is located in the Sistan and Baluchistan Province, in southeastern Iran, about 56 kilometers southwest of the city of Zabol, near Hamun County. It lies close to the borders of Afghanistan and Pakistan. But that’s its modern location. You might be wondering, where did the people of Shahr-e Sukhteh get their water from?  There’s barely any water around today, and the Helmand River (رودخانه هیرمند) seems so far away. Back in its golden age, though, things were completely different.  In ancient times, Shahr-e Sukhteh was located right between Hamun Lake and the Helmand River, perfectly placed between two great water sources. And here’s something incredible: the Burnt City sits almost exactly in the middle of the world , roughly equidistant between the eastern and western edges of the globe, a truly fascinating spot for an ancient civilization to rise. The site itself covers about 200 hectares (490 acres) , making it a remarkably large settlement for its time. The story behind the name  Have you ever wondered why this ancient city is called Shahr-e Sukhteh? The exact meaning of Shahr-e Sukhteh (شهر سوخته)  is “The Burnt City.”  However, this wasn’t the city’s original name. In fact, we still don’t know what it was truly called. Local people had long known about the site before it drew international attention, yet no inscriptions or written records have ever been found to reveal its ancient name. In recent research, a Sumerian inscription was discovered about the cities from which they imported goods. Among these names was one that aligns closely with what we know about Shahr-e Sukhteh, the city called “Arteh.”  Some archaeologists believe that this name refers to the Burnt City itself, while others argue that it does not. The site was first introduced to the Western world by Aurel Stein  during his travels in Iran in 1935–1936 . While exploring the area, he noticed that much of the ground was covered with ashes, leading him to believe that the ancient settlement had been destroyed by fire. The locals also referred to it as a “burnt city.” In his report, Stein famously wrote: “Today, I saw a burnt city.” At this point, you might wonder, Was Shahr-e Sukhteh really destroyed by a massive wildfire? The answer is, partly, yes.  Archaeological evidence shows that the city suffered three major fires  around 2700 BCE, 2200 BCE, and 2100 or 1900 BCE , each causing significant destruction. By the time of the last fire, only about sixty families remained, and the final inhabitants eventually abandoned the city. But fire alone wasn’t the main reason for Shahr-e Sukhteh’s downfall. According to Dr. Seyyed Mansour Seyyed Sajjadi  and other archaeologists, the primary cause of its abandonment was severe climate change  that swept across eastern Iran (from Central Asia to present-day Turkmenistan ) and even affected major Afghan cities like Mundigak . These environmental shifts devastated agriculture, forcing the people of Shahr-e Sukhteh to turn to animal husbandry , a lifestyle more suited to nomadic life. Many families migrated to nearby smaller settlements, but even those couldn’t sustain them for more than a few decades before food resources ran out. Today, the Burnt City stands as a silent witness to a civilization that once thrived between rivers that have long vanished. Its ashes tell stories of innovation, resilience, and change, echoes of a people who adapted to the harsh rhythms of time and nature. Yet, the rediscovery of Shahr-e Sukhteh is a story of its own, a tale of archaeologists, persistence, and the unearthing of forgotten worlds... Continue Your Journey  Excavation and Archaeology of Shahr-e Sukhteh Discoveries and Mysteries of Shahr-e Sukhteh The Graves of Shahr-e Sukhteh author: The Museum of Time , Asal Mirzaei 11 November 2025, lastest update

So far, archaeologists have uncovered more than 300 graves in Shahr-e Sukhteh, but here’s the astonishing part: experts believe that beneath the desert ground lie between 25,000 and 40,000 burials still waiting to be unearthed. These graves date back to 3200–1800 BCE, spanning the entire life of the city and reflecting its social, cultural, and spiritual evolution. The cemetery was first identified by the Italian archaeological mission led by Maurizio Tosi (1967–1978) , and later continued by Iranian teams under Dr. Seyyed Mansour Sajjadi . Together, they revealed one of the most extensive Bronze Age cemeteries in the world, a silent record of a civilization that honored its dead with remarkable care and complexity. Excavations show a wide diversity of burial types, revealing differences in status, gender, family ties, and possibly profession or clan. Most of those buried seemed to believe that life continued after death, and that they would need their belongings in the next world. Coins, pottery, jewelry, mirrors, and tools were placed beside the dead, not merely as decoration, but as offerings for a journey beyond this life. content table: The Burial Culture of Shahr-e Sukhteh Simple Pit Graves Brick-Lined Graves Collective or Multiple Graves Jar Burials Grave Goods and Offerings Odd and Extraordinary Discoveries Animals Buried in Shahr-e Sukhteh Legacy and Religious Beliefs of Shahr-e Sukhteh The Burial Culture of Shahr-e Sukhteh Their burial culture was unlike anything seen in neighboring civilizations. In some graves, archaeologists found artificial fruits made of clay , symbolic offerings to accompany the soul into the afterlife. One of the most astonishing discoveries was a woman buried with her artificial eye still in place,  the oldest known prosthetic eye in human history. Unlike many ancient societies where the orientation of the body reflected gender or social order, the people of the Burnt City followed a unique rule: they buried their dead according to the position of the sun.  At sunrise or sunset, bodies were placed facing the direction of the light. When burials took place at night, the deceased were laid on their backs, gazing upward. And at noon, when the sun stood high and bright, bodies were buried facing the sky, as if connecting the departed with the heavens above. burial at night or the cloudy sky in shahr-e sukhteh Archaeologists have also uncovered crypt-style tombs , chambered graves built of mud-brick. Inside some of these, they discovered small hearths  made of clay, designed to burn for as long as oxygen lasted within the sealed chamber. These fires symbolized warmth and life even in death. The entrances of these crypts were sealed tightly , yet always aligned so that the eyes of the deceased faced the doorway , which in turn opened toward the rising sun, a profound gesture of rebirth and light. The people of Shahr-e Sukhteh placed beside their dead all that was important to them in life, personal belongings, ornaments, tools, and offerings. They truly believed in life after death , and to them, death was not an end but a natural stage in the eternal cycle of existence. Many skeletons discovered appear as if peacefully asleep, not lifeless, but merely resting. Most graves contained personal objects belonging to the deceased, but some were found empty. Archaeologists propose two explanations: either the objects had decayed over time, or those individuals were travelers who passed through the city and, because of different customs or faiths, were buried without offerings. So far, around 700 graves  have been excavated, and their contents reveal another curious detail, not all women’s graves contained “feminine” objects. Some women were buried with tools, containers, or ornaments usually associated with men. Perhaps these items reflected their passions or personal identity, chosen by loved ones to accompany them into the afterlife. Simple Pit Graves of shahr-e sukhteh Among the vast cemetery of Shahr-e Sukhteh, the simple pit graves  are by far the most common type, silent, humble, and yet deeply human. These burials form the majority of the thousands of graves scattered across the desert plateau, representing the everyday men, women, and children who once brought life to this ancient city. Each grave was typically a rectangular or oval pit , dug directly into the earth. The bodies were placed in a flexed or fetal position , arms drawn close to the chest and knees bent, as though the dead were returning to the same position they had once held in the womb. This gesture of rebirth (returning to the earth as one once came from it) reflects a profound spiritual symbolism that the people of the Burnt City clearly understood. The orientation of these simple graves varied, but most were aligned north–south , with the head turned toward the south or southeast , following the direction of the rising sun. Even in their simplicity, these burials reveal a deep connection to cosmic and natural cycles (the sun, earth, and sky) all intertwined in the city’s belief in life beyond death. Objects found within these graves were modest but meaningful: clay vessels , stone beads , simple tools , and occasionally small mirrors  or personal ornaments . These were not random gifts, but offerings of remembrance and hope, items believed to help the soul in its passage to the next world. Some graves even contained fragments of animal bones or food , symbolic provisions for the afterlife journey. What is most striking about these pit burials is not their lack of wealth, but their emotional intimacy. Each one tells the story of an ordinary life (a potter, a child, a mother, or a shepherd) laid to rest with care, facing the same sun they once worked and lived beneath. Their graves may be simple, but they speak of a civilization that valued every human soul, regardless of status or power. Brick-Lined Graves If the simple pit burials of Shahr-e Sukhteh belonged to the ordinary people of the city, the brick-lined graves  tell a different story, one of wealth, status, and refined ritual. These tombs were crafted with greater care and skill, built not just as a resting place, but as a home for eternity. Each of these graves was constructed with mudbrick walls , sometimes even covered with a brick or plaster roof. The inner space often formed a small rectangular chamber, carefully sealed after the burial. Unlike the shallow pit graves, these structures required more labor and materials, a clear indication that those buried within belonged to families of higher social standing or held a special role in society. Inside these tombs, archaeologists have discovered an impressive array of grave goods : finely painted pottery, cosmetic tools , bronze mirrors , metal blades , ornate jewelry , and even decorated containers  for perfumes or ointments. The quality and diversity of these objects suggest that their owners lived lives of privilege and sophistication. Some of these graves also contained food offerings  (animal bones, seeds, or jars filled with remains of ancient meals) left behind as provisions for the journey into the afterlife. The care taken to include these items reveals the same deep spiritual belief that runs through all burials in the Burnt City: that death was not an end, but a continuation. The position of the bodies in brick-lined graves followed no strict pattern; yet, many were oriented toward the east or southeast , where the sun rises. Some were buried alongside small clay hearths , as if warmth itself were meant to accompany the soul beyond the grave. To look upon these brick-lined graves is to witness the social layers of Shahr-e Sukhteh, a civilization where even in death, the line between the humble and the powerful was quietly marked in clay and fire. Collective or Multiple Graves Among the sands of Shahr-e Sukhteh, some graves hold more than one story. These are the collective or multiple burials , resting places where two or more individuals were laid to rest together, sometimes side by side, sometimes at different times. They are among the most intriguing discoveries of the Burnt City, whispering tales of family bonds, shared destinies, and complex burial rituals. Many of these graves were first documented by the Italian mission led by Maurizio Tosi (1967–1978) , and later confirmed and expanded upon by the Iranian archaeological teams under Dr. Seyyed Mansour Sajjadi . These archaeologists revealed that several of these multi-person graves likely represent family clusters , where members of the same lineage were interred together across generations. In some graves, husbands and wives  were laid side by side, accompanied by shared offerings (pottery, jewelry, and tools) creating a tangible connection that extended beyond life. Others contained parents and children , their bodies positioned carefully to reflect familial bonds. Some graves even show signs of secondary burial , meaning the earth was reopened to add new individuals. This rare practice suggests a continuing relationship between the living and the dead: graves were not abandoned after a single burial but served as sacred family chambers. Children’s burials within these collective graves reveal another poignant detail. Tiny bodies were often accompanied by small beads, vessels, or toys , placed with care by those who mourned them. Archaeologists note that these burials were ceremonial, not sacrificial, evidence of the deep respect for the youngest members of the community. Grave goods varied widely, reflecting the social status or personal significance of the individuals buried together. Yet across all collective graves, one truth remains clear: the people of Shahr-e Sukhteh viewed death as a continuation of life’s connections. Families, couples, and kin groups remained bound even in their final resting place. These collective graves, documented by Tosi and Sajjadi , remind us that in the Burnt City, death was not merely an individual passage. It was a continuation of relationships, a living memory of love and kinship, preserved beneath the same desert sky that once watched over their vibrant city. Jar Burials Among the graves of Shahr-e Sukhteh, some of the most delicate and poignant belong to the youngest members of the city: infants and small children . These are the jar burials , resting places where tiny bodies were laid to rest inside large clay vessels, a practice both practical and deeply symbolic. Archaeologists, including Maurizio Tosi  and later Dr. Seyyed Mansour Sajjadi , documented these burials across several sectors of the cemetery. The jars were carefully chosen to fit the small bodies, often placed horizontally or at a slight angle, and sometimes sealed with a flat stone or smaller pot. Despite their small size, these burials were treated with great care, reflecting the city’s belief in honoring every life, no matter how brief . Grave goods in jar burials were miniature versions of what adults might receive: tiny beads , clay figurines , and occasionally small vessels . Some jars contained traces of red ochre or ashes , likely ritual substances meant to purify and protect the child in the journey beyond life. In some cases, these infant burials were located near the graves of mothers or family members , suggesting an enduring connection even in death. The jars themselves were not merely containers but symbolic wombs, cradling the child in the earth until it could be reborn, in the belief system of Shahr-e Sukhteh. Even the smallest life was woven into the city’s ritual and spiritual universe. These tiny graves, quiet and unassuming, tell a story of love, protection, and hope . They reveal a civilization that treated death as a part of life’s cycle, a cycle in which the young were not forgotten, but carefully guided into the afterlife with the same dignity and intention as adults. Grave Goods and Offerings Among the silent sands of Shahr-e Sukhteh, the dead are never truly alone. They rest amidst objects carefully chosen to accompany them beyond life , treasures that reveal the city’s spiritual imagination, daily life, and social hierarchies . The cemetery itself becomes a narrative, where each grave tells a story not only of death, but of life, of what mattered most to a people who lived more than five millennia ago. Even the simplest graves speak volumes. Archaeologists found clay vessels, beads, basic tools, and personal ornaments  positioned deliberately beside the deceased, near the head, hands, or feet. These were not mere possessions; they were companions for the journey ahead , items believed to guide, protect, or comfort the soul as it traveled into the unknown. Some graves contained fragments of food, grains, or animal bones , hinting at the belief that nourishment might still be needed in the next life. As one ascends the hierarchy of burial types, the offerings grow more luxurious and complex . In brick-lined graves, reserved for the wealthy or socially prominent, archaeologists documented a dazzling array of objects. Gold, silver, and bronze jewelry , sometimes set with semi-precious stones like carnelian, turquoise, and lapis lazuli , adorned the deceased. Necklaces, earrings, bracelets, and rings reflected personal style, rank, or symbolic meaning, turning the grave into a miniature display of identity and status. Cosmetic tools and polished bronze mirrors  were also common, suggesting that maintaining appearance, or perhaps ritual purification, was an important aspect of afterlife preparation. Pottery in Shahr-e Sukhteh graves is a world unto itself. Simple clay jars and bowls served practical purposes, while decorated, painted vessels  hint at aesthetic sensibilities and symbolic communication. Some containers held grains, seeds, or small portions of food , perhaps sustenance for the dead. Others contained clay replicas of fruits , delicately molded and painted, miniature gifts bridging the living and spiritual worlds. Among the most extraordinary finds are the artificial eye prosthetics , medical tools, and evidence of surgical knowledge. One remarkable woman was buried with a carefully crafted artificial eye still in place , making it the oldest known prosthetic in human history . Tools for healing and ritual care also accompany certain burials, emphasizing that the city’s inhabitants valued both health and spiritual readiness . Even in death, their skill, care, and ingenuity were evident. Children’s graves reveal a different tenderness. Miniature offerings  (tiny pots, beads, figurines, and toys) were included, scaled to fit their small forms. Their placement reflects love, protection, and hope , showing that the youngest lives were as significant as adult ones. These gestures are both poignant and extraordinary, giving voice to emotions that transcended time. Animals, too, sometimes appear in the graves ( dogs, goats, or other creatures)  likely as companions, guardians, or spiritual guides for the deceased. While archaeologists continue to debate their precise significance, their presence highlights a worldview where no one was left alone , and death was a communal and relational experience. In total, the grave goods of Shahr-e Sukhteh illuminate a civilization that merged practicality with profound symbolism . Every object (whether a humble clay bowl, a polished mirror, or a precious stone bracelet) was a bridge between the living and the dead, a conduit for memory, care, and belief. They show a people deeply conscious of life’s cycles, attentive to the passage of time, and committed to honoring every individual with intention and reverence. Through these offerings, we glimpse not only the material culture of the Burnt City, but also its values, imagination, and spiritual depth . The cemetery becomes more than a resting place; it is a living archive of human thought, devotion, and artistry , unmatched in its time and remarkable even to us today. In Shahr-e Sukhteh, death was not an end, it was an act of creation, a carefully curated journey, and a testament to the eternal connection between the living and the departed. Odd and Extraordinary Discoveries Shahr-e Sukhteh is not only remarkable for its graves and offerings, it is astonishing for the innovations, anomalies, and mysteries  uncovered within its cemetery and city. Archaeologists have unearthed evidence of practices and artifacts that seem centuries ahead of their time, challenging our assumptions about life, death, and knowledge in the Bronze Age. Perhaps the most mind-blowing discovery is the evidence of brain surgery, or trepanation . Archaeologists found skulls with deliberate holes , crafted with precision and showing signs of healing , indicating that the patients survived the operation . This suggests that the people of Shahr-e Sukhteh not only performed surgery but also had knowledge of basic medical care and post-operative healing , an extraordinary achievement for 3200–1800 BCE. Another astonishing find is the preserved brain of a child , one of the oldest ever discovered in the world. Its state of preservation has provided researchers with a rare glimpse into the neurological knowledge and preservation techniques  of the city’s inhabitants. This evidence, along with the sophisticated prosthetics, paints a picture of a society that deeply valued the human body, health, and continuity of life , even after death. Then there is the famous artificial eye that we mentioned in our blog " Discoveries of Shahr-e Sukhteh " , discovered in a woman’s grave. This prosthetic, made of bitumen and small gold threads , is considered the oldest ocular prosthesis in history . Not only does it reveal the city’s technical skill , but it also demonstrates their concern for physical wholeness in life and afterlife . Archaeologists have also found unusual items buried with the dead : tiny dice, game boards, clay fruit replicas, and miniature tools. Some graves contained ornamental sticks or ritual objects  that remain difficult to interpret, while others included animal remains , sometimes whole or partial, hinting at ceremonial or symbolic functions. Even more bizarre are the secondary burials  and graves that appear deliberately disturbed or reorganized , sometimes centuries after the original interment. These suggest ritual maintenance of the dead , or possibly a practice of honoring ancestors repeatedly , reflecting a highly sophisticated belief system in the continuity of life and memory. Taken together, these discoveries show that Shahr-e Sukhteh was more than a city: it was a center of innovation, ritual, and complex human thought . Surgery, prosthetics, preserved brains, symbolic objects, and sophisticated burial practices reveal a society that blurred the line between life and death, science and ritual, practicality and spirituality . In Shahr-e Sukhteh, even the oddest discoveries tell a story of a civilization that was curious, inventive, and deeply respectful of human life , a city where the dead were not forgotten, but carefully, even extraordinarily, prepared for the journey beyond. Animals Buried in Shahr-e Sukhteh Among the many mysteries of Shahr-e Sukhteh are the animals buried alongside humans , silent companions that hint at rituals, beliefs, and even trade networks of this ancient city. These burials reveal a society that saw life and death as interconnected, not only among humans but with the natural world around them . Archaeologists discovered graves containing dogs, goats, and other domestic animals , placed carefully beside the deceased. Some were likely companions in life , others perhaps offered as ritual gifts  to guide or protect the dead in the afterlife. These animal burials underscore the city’s belief that death was a journey requiring care and connection , not a solitary passage. Among the most intriguing finds was a monkey , buried in a manner that left the Iranian archaeological team puzzled. At the time, there were very few local experts able to identify such unusual remains. To solve the mystery, a specialist was brought from the West , who confirmed the animal’s identity. Dr. Seyyed Mansour Sajjadi, who witnessed the examination firsthand, recalls, “I saw it live, the Iranians could not understand what it was until the foreign expert identified it.” The presence of this exotic creature raises fascinating questions.. Was it a pet, a ritual offering, or evidence of long-distance trade networks? Other animal burials remain equally mysterious. Some were partial skeletons, carefully positioned, while others were complete. The selection of species, the positioning beside the deceased, and sometimes the inclusion of symbolic objects suggest that animals had both practical and spiritual significance  in Shahr-e Sukhteh. These findings highlight a city where humans did not live, or die in isolation. Animals were partners, guardians, or symbols , carefully integrated into burial rituals. From dogs providing companionship to a rare monkey whose origin puzzled archaeologists, these burials show the Burnt City’s people valued all forms of life and wove them into their spiritual world . Legacy and Religious Beliefs of Shahr-e Sukhteh The graves, offerings, and extraordinary discoveries of Shahr-e Sukhteh are more than archaeological curiosities; they are windows into the spiritual life of one of the earliest urban civilizations in Iran . Beneath the desert sands lies a society that deeply understood life, death, and the continuity between the two , leaving a legacy that resonates even today. The people of Shahr-e Sukhteh believed in an afterlife , a continuation of existence beyond the grave. This is evident in the careful positioning of bodies according to the sun, the inclusion of grave goods , and the presence of animals and symbolic items  in burials. Objects were not simply decorative, mirrors, jewelry, pottery, and even clay fruit were placed deliberately, suggesting the dead would need them for spiritual or practical purposes  in another realm. Religious belief also shaped ritualized treatment of the body . Secondary burials, collective graves, and crypts indicate that the living maintained a connection to their ancestors , honoring family bonds and ensuring spiritual continuity. The inclusion of exotic animals, such as the monkey , and domestic companions like dogs and goats, suggests that the city’s spiritual worldview extended beyond humans, encompassing the natural and supernatural worlds . Odd discoveries such as prosthetic eyes and evidence of surgery  hint at a fusion of science and spirituality . The people of Shahr-e Sukhteh cared for the physical body as part of their belief system, ensuring the deceased were complete and protected  in life and afterlife. Even children, buried in jars with miniature offerings, reflect a religion that recognized every life as sacred . Their legacy extends beyond individual burials. Shahr-e Sukhteh demonstrates that religion in the Bronze Age was integrated into daily life, death, and social identity . Rituals were codified yet adaptable, combining practical knowledge, symbolic gestures, and spiritual beliefs into a cohesive worldview . Archaeologists like Maurizio Tosi and Dr. Seyyed Mansour Sajjadi  have emphasized that the city’s cemeteries reveal not just death, but an entire cosmology, a city that linked humanity, nature, and the cosmos in a sacred dialogue . Today, Shahr-e Sukhteh stands as a testament to a civilization that blended devotion, innovation, and social structure , leaving behind a cultural and spiritual blueprint  for the Bronze Age and beyond. Its graves, offerings, and extraordinary artifacts remind us that human beings have long sought to understand life, honor the dead, and bridge the seen and unseen, a legacy that continues to inspire archaeologists, historians, and anyone who gazes upon the silent desert sands. _________________________________________________________________________ Shahr-e Sukhteh is more than a city lost to the sands of time; it is a living testament to human ingenuity, belief, and devotion . Through its graves, offerings, and extraordinary artifacts, we glimpse a civilization that honored life, understood death, and sought to bridge the two . From the simplest pit graves to brick-lined tombs, from the smallest jar burials of children to the most astonishing discoveries of prosthetics, surgery, and exotic animals, every detail reflects a people deeply connected to one another, to nature, and to the cosmos . The Burnt City teaches us that death was not an end, but a carefully orchestrated continuation of a journey prepared with ritual, care, and imagination . Its legacy endures in the careful placement of grave goods, the precision of burial practices, and the symbolic inclusion of animals, tools, and objects of daily life. In this city, every human and even some animals were given dignity, protection, and remembrance  in life and beyond. For modern eyes, Shahr-e Sukhteh is both a mystery and a mirror. It reminds us that even in the Bronze Age, humans pushed boundaries of knowledge, art, medicine, and spirituality , leaving traces that speak across millennia. Its cemetery is not just a site of archaeology; it is a monument to the universal human desire to understand life, honor the dead, and preserve memory , a legacy that continues to inspire wonder today. author: The Museum of Time , Asal Mirzaei 15 November 2025, lastest update

The Renaissance was a time like no other, an age when innovation and an eye for beauty flourished, stretching their branches across Europe. It began in 14th-century Italy and reached England by the 16th century, before coming to an end, as most historians agree, in the 17th century. During this remarkable era, a new ideal of beauty emerged, one forever immortalized in Leonardo da Vinci’s Mona Lisa  and Sandro Botticelli’s The Birth of Venus . Portrait of a Woman, 1638-39 by Guido Reni So what did it take to be beautiful in a world painted by da Vinci and Botticelli? Would you risk your health for perfection? Content table: The Price of Pale Skin The body as abundance  Blonde Locks and High Foreheads Sweet and Humble: Eyes The Price of Pale Skin It’s 1442, and you stand in the flourishing city of Florence. Today is the day you’ll buy your first item of makeup, or at least, the ingredients. Why are you purchasing this chalky white powder made from lead, you ask? Because, perhaps, you don’t realize that this “harmless” cosmetic will one day eat away at your skin after years of use. Or maybe you do know, and simply don’t care. After all, every girl you know managed to keep her complexion fair through the summer, and your beautiful golden skin won’t do if you hope to find a husband. Pale skin is more than beauty, it’s a symbol. A fair face whispers of wealth, purity, and refinement. It tells the world you are not a laborer under the sun, but a woman of leisure and virtue. Across Italy and beyond, women crush white lead, vinegar, and sometimes even mercury into a fine paste, applying it daily to achieve that coveted porcelain glow. Some mix it with powdered pearls or egg whites to add shine. Others use leeches to drain the blood from their faces before applying the powder, a dangerous ritual of devotion to beauty. Then comes your second question: Do I need a husband?  The short answer is yes. Without one, you’ll bring shame upon your family. It’s your duty to embody their virtue. And once you marry, that duty shifts, you’ll become the symbol of your husband’s wealth, honor, and fertility. Because in the Renaissance, a woman’s face was more than her own, it was a mirror of her family’s status. In Renaissance society, pale skin was more than beauty, it was a sign of status, virtue, and femininity. Such qualities were believed to reflect a woman’s emotional, physical, and even spiritual nature. If you were not naturally “blessed” the way women of high society seemed to be, there was always a way to imitate them. Skin bleach, known as Venetian ceruse , was made from lead and tin oxide. You might recognize this powder on the face of Queen Elizabeth I. However, this practice would not become widespread until the 16th century. Along with pale skin, softly tinted cheeks and lips added a touch of natural color, a sign of youth and vitality. To achieve this look, women used pigments made from mulberry juice or red ochre, applying them delicately to bring life to their complexions. Allegory of Venus and Cupid, c. 1600, by Tiziano Vecelli. The Body as Abundance A common theme you may notice throughout the Renaissance is the celebration of a fuller body. Broad hips, a rounded stomach, and soft, fleshy arms and legs were all considered signs of beauty, features to be desired and admired in most parts of Europe touched by Renaissance ideals. This vision of the female form drew heavily from the classical ideals of ancient Greece and Rome, where goddesses were depicted with gentle curves and abundant figures. Artists like Titian and Rubens later echoed this admiration in their paintings, portraying women whose bodies embodied warmth, fertility, and earthly delight rather than restraint. A fuller body did not only please the eye, it spoke of prosperity and health. It suggested that a woman was well-fed, fertile, and untouched by the hardship of manual labor. In a world where famine and illness were constant threats, a soft, curving figure symbolized life itself. Once again, Renaissance beauty revealed more than physical appearance; it reflected the deeper values of age, virtue, wealth, and the promise of abundance. Saint Justina of Padua by Bartolomeo Montagna, 1490s Blonde Locks and High Foreheads: Ideal Beauty of Renaissance If you’re a lover of Renaissance art, you’ve surely noticed the high foreheads that often accompany a woman’s long, golden hair. It’s not that the artists held a grudge against their subjects… rather, a high forehead reflected status, refinement, and intellect. The Italian writer Agnolo Firenzuola, in On the Beauty of Women  (1892), described ideal proportions as follows: “Thus, you see that the measure of the whole person is taken from the head, and that of the head from the whole person... a figure of goodly stature, more especially that of a woman, should not be greater than seven and a half spans... the head, if in good and convenient proportion, will be seven and a half finger-breadths high.” In simpler terms, he believed that a woman’s beauty and proportion were measured from her head, a reflection of perfect harmony in the body. Because of this fascination with symmetry and refinement, hairlines were often shaped to achieve that elegant high forehead. Recipes and techniques for hair removal were passed down among friends and families, some even published in household manuals. Plucking, shaving, and sticky tree resin were all common methods. Hair in the Renaissance was more than a beauty feature; it was a language of status and virtue. It reflected a woman’s social position, character, and health. The ideal color was a radiant blonde, a shade associated with angelic purity and divine beauty. Women often adorned their hair with beads, ribbons, and jewels, braiding or coiling it elegantly around the scalp. To achieve the golden hue, lightening remedies were popular and widely circulated. One recipe, from Ruscelli’s De’ Secreti , recommended a mixture of quicklime and sulphur to strip pigment from the hair before exposing it to sunlight. Another suggested boiling alum water into a poultice and leaving it on the hair for two days, all in pursuit of the perfect Renaissance blonde. Titian, Venus with a mirror (1555) Sweet and Humble: Eyes A curious contrast to the fair-haired, pale-skinned ideal of the Renaissance was the admiration for dark eyes, large, almond-shaped, and full of quiet depth. Your eyes were expected to express modesty and virtue, reflecting a gentle and obedient spirit. Long, dark lashes were thought to frame the windows to the soul, enhancing that soft, demure gaze. To achieve this effect, women darkened their lashes with soot or kohl, creating a subtle yet striking contrast against fair skin. As for the brows, they were to be thin, delicately arched, and carefully shaped to complement the smooth expanse of a pale forehead. Titian, Sacred and Profane Love , c. 1513 – 1514, Galleria Borghese, Rome. The End of an Era It is the end of an era, the Renaissance, painted by artists, defined by discovery, and shaped by ideals of beauty, virtue, and intellect. Now, you find yourself in the early 17th century, where the Baroque period is beginning to bloom. New visions of beauty will emerge, yet the desire to idealize the female form will remain unchanged. From 14th-century Italy to 16th-century England, we have traced the standards that shaped the minds of many, and the rituals and remedies women used to achieve them. From pale skin and high foreheads to darkened eyes and soft, full bodies, each ideal told a story of its time. As history moves forward, so too will the standards and perceptions of beauty, always changing, yet always pursued. author : The Museum of Time, Ava McCloskey 5 November 2025, lastest update

Athens is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world, with a rich history spanning over 3,000 years. Known as the cradle of democracy, philosophy, and Western civilization, Athens played a pivotal role in shaping the cultural and political foundations of the modern world. From the construction of iconic landmarks like the Parthenon to the lively public forums where great thinkers debated, the city’s legacy is deeply embedded in its streets and monuments. Today, Athens blends its ancient heritage with vibrant modern life, standing as a living testament to the enduring spirit of human achievement and innovation. (Athens has been inhabited for over 5,000 years, with its roots tracing back to early Bronze Age settlements around 3000 BCE. Over millennia, it grew into a powerful city-state that shaped the course of history.) Content table : Introduction : the heart of ancient Greece  Early development of Athens  The First Settlements The Early Bronze Age The Mycenaean Period The Greek Dark Ages and the Geometric Period Social and Political Foundations The classical era  Athenian Democracy The Art of Classical Athens : Sculpture , Architecture , Pottery Art as a Reflection of Society The huge transformation  in history of Athens The Fall of Athens and the Rise of Rome A New Chapter: Cultural and Economic Shifts in Post-Classical Athens Modern Athens Athens Historical Timeline Welcome to Athens, a city that changed the course of history. Introduction: the heart of ancient Greece Athens is one of the most important cities in history. More than just the capital of Greece, it is where many ideas that shaped our modern world were born. Around 2,500 years ago, Athens became the center of politics, culture, and learning in ancient Greece. It was here that democracy  was created. Unlike the kings and emperors who ruled most places at the time, Athens gave its citizens the chance to participate in government. Men could vote, speak in public meetings, and help decide the laws. This idea of democracy influenced many countries later on, including those that created the United States and other modern democracies. Athens was also home to some of the greatest philosophers  in history. Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle lived and taught here, asking important questions about life, knowledge, and right and wrong. Their ideas still influence philosophy, science, and education today. The city was a leader in art and theater  as well. Athens invented drama, with plays that explored human emotions, morals, and politics. These plays were performed in open-air theaters and remain famous thousands of years later. Athens built beautiful and lasting monuments like the Parthenon , a temple dedicated to the goddess Athena. This temple shows Athens’ skill in architecture and art, inspiring buildings worldwide even today. The city was also a center for history and science . Historians like Herodotus and Thucydides wrote detailed accounts of events, setting the foundation for the study of history. Meanwhile, scientists and doctors like Hippocrates began studying nature and medicine in new ways. What makes Athens truly important is the spirit of free thinking  and creativity  it encouraged. It was a place where ideas were shared openly, and people believed that knowledge and discussion could make the world better. Though centuries have passed, Athens’ influence has never faded. The ideas and achievements born there continue to shape governments, education, arts, and sciences around the world. Early development of Athens  Ever wondered how was Athens before the classical era ? The First Settlements The story of Athens begins long before it became a famous city of philosophy and democracy. The first signs of human life in the Athens area date back to the Neolithic period , around 6000 BCE . During this time, small groups of hunter-gatherers and early farmers settled near what is now the Acropolis, the rocky hill that would later become the heart of the city. These early inhabitants lived simple lives, relying on farming, hunting, and gathering to survive. They built basic homes from wood, mud bricks, and stones, and crafted tools from stone and bone. Archaeological discoveries such as pottery fragments, stone tools, and animal bones provide a glimpse into their daily lives and culture. Some of these artifacts have been found on the slopes of the Acropolis and in nearby caves, showing how people used the natural landscape for shelter and resources. The settlements were scattered and small, with people living in villages rather than large towns. However, these early communities laid the groundwork for Athens’ future growth by establishing a human presence in the area and beginning early forms of agriculture and trade. They also started to develop social connections that would evolve into more complex societies over time. Though modest by today’s standards, these first settlements were crucial. They connected Athens to a wider network of early human activity in the Aegean region and set the stage for the city’s gradual transformation into one of the most influential centers of the ancient world. The Early Bronze Age: Establishing Permanent Settlements Around 3000 BCE , Athens entered a new phase in its development known as the Early Bronze Age  or Early Helladic period . This era marked important technological and social advances that helped transform Athens from scattered villages into more permanent and organized settlements. During this time, people in the Athens region began working with metals like copper and bronze, creating stronger tools and weapons. Pottery became more sophisticated, with new styles and techniques reflecting evolving cultural practices. These improvements made daily life easier and allowed communities to grow. Archaeological evidence from sites around Athens shows that villages expanded and became more stable. Homes were built with stronger materials, such as stone foundations and mud bricks, replacing the simpler wooden structures of earlier times. This shift suggests a move toward longer-term settlement rather than seasonal or temporary living. Trade networks also grew during the Early Bronze Age, connecting Athens with other regions across the Aegean and beyond. This exchange of goods and ideas helped the city develop culturally and economically, introducing new materials and artistic influences. While Athens was still not a city in the modern sense, these settlements laid important foundations. The shared culture and language among the communities helped unify the people of Attica, the region around Athens, creating a sense of identity. Overall, the Early Bronze Age was a crucial period when Athens began to transition from small farming villages into a connected and thriving society, the first real step toward becoming the historic city it is known as today. The Mycenaean Period: Athens as a Fortress and Palace Center The Mycenaean period, from around 1600 to 1100 BCE , marked a major turning point in Athens’ early history. During these centuries, Athens transformed from scattered villages into a fortified palace center, becoming an important city within the powerful Mycenaean civilization that ruled much of mainland Greece. Archaeological excavations on the Acropolis have revealed massive stone fortifications known as Cyclopean walls . These huge limestone blocks were placed without mortar, and their impressive size led later Greeks to believe they were built by mythical giants called Cyclopes. These walls protected the city and showed Athens’ growing military and strategic importance during this time. At the heart of the Acropolis stood a Mycenaean palace complex, which served as the political and religious center of the city. The palace was likely ruled by a king, or wanax , who controlled the surrounding region and oversaw the administration. This complex included storage rooms for goods, workshops, and shrines, indicating an organized government managing resources and religious life. While no Linear B tablets (the Mycenaean script) have been found in Athens, their existence in other Mycenaean centers suggests that Athens likely used similar systems for record-keeping and governance. This points to a sophisticated bureaucracy supporting palace life. Athens was also part of extensive trade networks during this period. It exchanged goods such as pottery, metals, and textiles with other key Mycenaean centers like Mycenae, Tiryns, and Pylos. These connections helped Athens grow economically and culturally. The city’s strategic location and fortifications also played a vital role in regional conflicts. The Mycenaeans were known for their warrior culture, and Athens’ defenses helped protect it from invasions and raids, contributing to its stability. Around 1100 BCE , the Mycenaean civilization collapsed during the widespread Late Bronze Age collapse, likely caused by a combination of invasions, internal strife, and natural disasters. Many palaces were destroyed or abandoned, including the one on Athens’ Acropolis. Following this collapse, Athens entered the Greek Dark Ages , a period of population decline, reduced trade, and loss of writing. Despite these challenges, the foundations laid during the Mycenaean period endured, eventually leading to the city’s recovery and rise as a major Greek city-state in later centuries. The Greek Dark Ages and the Geometric Period: Rebuilding and Renewal After the collapse of the Mycenaean civilization around 1100 BCE , Athens entered a challenging period called the Greek Dark Ages  (approximately 1100–900 BCE ). During this time, much of the advanced political structure, trade, and culture of the Bronze Age declined sharply. Written records disappeared, populations dropped, and many settlements shrank or were abandoned. Despite these hardships, the people of Athens adapted and kept their communities alive. Life became more local, with less long-distance trade and simpler technologies. Small villages continued, preserving core customs and beliefs even during this quieter time. Around 900 BCE , the Dark Ages gave way to the Geometric Period  (circa 900–700 BCE ), named after the geometric designs on pottery found from this era. Athens began to rebuild and grow. The Acropolis regained importance as a religious and political center, where new temples and shrines were built. Athens also started to develop the early features of the polis , the Greek city-state that would become central to its identity. Trade and population slowly increased, reconnecting Athens with other parts of the Aegean and Mediterranean. The economy diversified, and artistic craftsmanship improved, reflecting a cultural revival. This period also saw the rise of social classes and powerful aristocratic families who controlled land and political influence. These tensions between elites and common people eventually led to reforms that shaped Athens’ political future. Though Athens faced decline during the Dark Ages, the Geometric Period marked a time of renewal and growth. It bridged the gap between Athens’ ancient roots and its later rise as a major Greek city-state, setting the stage for the remarkable achievements that would follow. Towards a City-State: Social and Political Foundations By the end of the Geometric Period and moving into the Archaic era  (starting around 700 BCE ), Athens was undergoing significant social and political changes that set the stage for its future as a powerful city-state. This period was crucial in transforming Athens from a loose collection of communities into a more organized and unified polis. One of the key developments was the gradual establishment of formal political institutions. Athens began moving away from rule by kings and powerful aristocratic families toward more complex systems of governance. Laws were written down for the first time to provide order and limit the power of nobles. These early legal codes helped create a sense of fairness and justice among the city’s inhabitants. Social divisions became more defined during this time. Aristocrats, who owned large amounts of land, held most of the political and economic power. Meanwhile, the majority of people were farmers, craftsmen, and laborers who sought greater influence and rights. This tension between wealthy elites and common citizens sparked debates and struggles that would eventually lead to important reforms. Religious life and civic pride grew stronger as well. The Acropolis became a center for worship, especially dedicated to Athena, the city’s patron goddess. Public festivals, temples, and monuments reinforced a shared identity and community spirit among Athenians. Military organization also improved, with citizens taking on roles as soldiers to defend the city. This growing sense of unity and responsibility helped strengthen Athens internally and against outside threats. These social and political foundations laid the groundwork for the revolutionary changes that would follow in the 6th and 5th centuries BCE, including the rise of democracy. The efforts to balance power and involve more citizens in governance were key steps in Athens’ journey toward becoming one of history’s most influential city-states. The classical era: Athens at its peak What happens when a city dares to redefine the world? Athenian Democracy: A Radical Experiment in Governance During the Classical Era, Athens introduced one of the most groundbreaking political systems in world history: democracy . This wasn’t democracy as we know it today, but for its time, it was a bold experiment in citizen rule that reshaped the identity of Athens and left a lasting mark on the world. The roots of Athenian democracy began with reformers like Solon  in the early 6th century BCE, who sought to reduce the power of aristocrats and ease tensions between social classes. He introduced economic reforms, freed many debt slaves, and allowed more citizens a role in political life, though power remained largely with the elite. A few decades later, the statesman Cleisthenes  carried out a series of revolutionary reforms around 508 BCE . Often called the "father of Athenian democracy," Cleisthenes reorganized the political structure to weaken the grip of aristocratic families and strengthen the power of ordinary citizens. He created new voting districts and established the Council of 500 , a body chosen by lot to prepare laws and manage daily governance. This council gave citizens from all walks of life a chance to participate directly in decision-making. The heart of democracy was the Ekklesia , or Assembly, where thousands of male citizens could gather to vote on laws, war, taxes, and public policy. Every citizen had the right to speak and vote, regardless of wealth or social status. Major decisions were made by majority vote, with no single ruler or elite council holding total control. Another important institution was the People’s Court , where jurors were chosen by lottery and served as judges in public trials. This gave ordinary citizens real power in enforcing laws and keeping officials accountable. Under the leadership of Pericles  in the mid-5th century BCE, democracy reached its most developed form. He introduced paid public service , allowing even the poorest citizens to take time off work and participate in civic life. Athens became a city where politics wasn’t reserved for the wealthy or noble, it was a duty and right of every free male citizen. However, this democracy had clear limits. Women, slaves, and foreign residents (metics) were excluded from political life. Out of a population of perhaps 250,000, only about 30,000 men qualified as citizens. Still, the system was radically inclusive for its time and inspired future democratic movements across the world. Athenian democracy was more than just a method of rule! it was a cultural identity. It fostered debate, civic engagement, and public responsibility, setting Athens apart from other ancient powers. Though it would eventually face challenges and decline, its legacy endured, influencing political thought for centuries to come. The Art of Classical Athens: Beauty, Balance, and Civic Pride Classical Athens wasn’t just the cradle of democracy, it was also a golden age of artistic achievement . Between the 5th and 4th centuries BCE, Athenian artists and architects produced works that not only embodied technical brilliance but also reflected the values of their society: harmony, order, and the ideal human form. Athenian art became a lasting symbol of civilization, copied and admired for centuries. Ares embraces Aphrodite as Cupid holds his sword, depicting a harmonious moment among the deities. Sculpture: Celebrating the Human Ideal Sculpture in Classical Athens was more than artistic expression, it was a celebration of the human form, divine presence, and civic pride. Moving away from the stiff and stylized figures of the Archaic period, Classical sculptors pursued naturalism , capturing anatomy, posture, and emotion with astonishing realism. Athenian sculpture centered on balance , proportion , and restraint . Bodies were depicted in idealized yet lifelike ways, not to mimic a specific individual but to represent the perfect version of humanity ! strong, serene, and composed. This approach reflected the Athenian belief that beauty was connected to moral and intellectual virtue. The sculptor Phidias  was a towering figure of this era. He supervised the construction and decoration of the Parthenon , including the majestic statue of Athena Parthenos , a gold-and-ivory masterpiece that stood inside the temple. He also created the colossal Statue of Zeus  at Olympia, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. His work blended artistic excellence with divine symbolism. Another influential artist, Polykleitos , developed a mathematical approach to beauty known as the Canon . His sculpture Doryphoros  (Spear-Bearer) embodied this theory, showing the human body in perfect balance, using contrapposto (a natural standing pose with weight on one leg). Public monuments, temple friezes, and statues of gods and athletes were placed throughout Athens, in sacred spaces like the Acropolis and civic areas like the Agora. These works weren’t merely decorative, they were meant to inspire citizens , reflect collective values, and offer thanks to the gods . Athenian sculpture thus became a bridge between the mortal and the divine, the individual and the polis. Architecture: Building Civic Glory Classical Athenian architecture stands as one of the most remarkable achievements in Western civilization. Its principles of harmony, symmetry, and proportion  not only defined the city’s skyline but also expressed the ideals of democracy, order, and human reason. The most iconic example is the Parthenon , constructed between 447–432 BCE atop the Acropolis. Designed by Iktinos and Kallikrates , this temple was dedicated to Athena, the city’s patron goddess. Though massive and complex, the Parthenon was built with mathematical precision, including subtle optical refinements  (like curved lines and angled columns) to correct for visual distortion and make it appear perfectly straight. The Parthenon wasn't just a temple; it was a political statement . It reflected Athens' power, its cultural superiority, and the triumph of its democratic ideals after the Persian Wars. Athenian architecture widely employed three column styles: Doric  (simple, sturdy), Ionic  (elegant, scroll-topped), and Corinthian  (ornate, leafy). These orders were used not only in temples but in stoas  (covered walkways), theaters , and public buildings , turning Athens into a harmonious civic space. The Theatre of Dionysus , located at the base of the Acropolis, was another architectural gem. As the birthplace of Greek drama, it hosted festivals that brought thousands of citizens together for performances of tragedy and comedy, blending art, religion, and civic identity. Architecture in Athens was more than utility; it was public art  that shaped how citizens moved, gathered, and understood their role in the city. Through architecture, Athenians carved their values into stone, making beauty and balance part of everyday life. The death of Talos volutr krater from 400 to 395 BC Pottery: Everyday Art and Myth in Clay While less monumental than temples or statues, Athenian pottery  offers a detailed and intimate glimpse into ancient life. These painted vessels, used for everything from storing oil and wine to serving food or honoring the dead, were both functional and artistic , reflecting the city's skill and storytelling tradition. During the Classical period, two major styles dominated Athenian pottery: black-figure  and red-figure . In black-figure pottery, artists painted silhouettes in black glaze on the natural red clay and etched fine details with a sharp tool. In red-figure pottery, the process was reversed, the background was painted black, leaving figures in the red of the clay, which allowed for greater detail, depth, and realism . Scenes on pottery ranged from mythological stories (about gods, heroes, battles) to everyday moments , like women weaving, athletes training, or symposiums (drinking parties). Through these images, we see how Athenians understood their world , values, and traditions. Myths were not just entertainment; they were moral lessons, reminders of cultural identity, and symbols of divine-human relationships. Artists like Euphronios , Exekias , and The Berlin Painter  became known for their fine craftsmanship and emotional depth. Their work shows how pottery wasn’t just an industry, it was a respected art form. Athenian pottery also became a major export . Its presence across the Mediterranean (from Italy to Egypt) reflects both the city’s commercial reach and the high demand for its artistic wares. Though often small and fragile, these pots carried big stories . They connected the domestic and divine, the mythic and the mundane. In every curve and brushstroke, Athenian pottery reveals a culture deeply rooted in narrative, beauty, and craft. Art as a Reflection of Society Art in Classical Athens was never created in isolation, it was deeply intertwined with the society that produced it. Rather than serving purely decorative purposes, Athenian art was a mirror of civic life , capturing the values, beliefs, and concerns of the people in both grand public forms and intimate everyday objects. At the heart of Athenian society was the polis , or city-state, where citizenship, collective identity, and participation in democracy were central. These ideas were vividly expressed in Athenian art. Monumental sculptures and temples like the Parthenon  didn’t just honor the gods! they communicated the strength, order, and unity of the democratic city. Public works were funded by the state or through liturgies (wealthy citizens' contributions), reinforcing the connection between art and civic responsibility . Even pottery, often used in domestic or funerary contexts, conveyed shared cultural narratives . Scenes of athletic competition, symposiums, and mythological tales reminded viewers of Athenian ideals: excellence (areté), moderation, and reverence for the gods. The human form, rendered with idealized precision, reflected not just physical beauty but moral character and intellect , virtues prized in both men and gods. Moreover, Athenian art often responded to contemporary events . After the Persian Wars, for example, temple friezes and sculptures depicted mythological battles (like the Centauromachy or Gigantomachy) as allegories of order triumphing over chaos, subtly referencing the Greek victory over the “barbaric” East. In doing so, art served as a visual expression of political triumph , reinforcing collective memory and pride. Ultimately, Athenian art was an extension of its democracy, religion, and identity. It offered citizens a shared visual language through which they could understand their place in the world, their responsibilities to each other, and their relationship to the divine. In every statue, painting, and temple stone, we see not only aesthetic mastery, but the soul of a society striving for excellence, harmony, and meaning . The HUGE transformation in history of Athens How does a city that taught the world to think... fall into silence? The Fall of Athens and the Rise of Rome As dazzling as Athens' Classical Era was, its golden age would not last forever. By the end of the 5th century BCE, the very forces that had elevated Athens, its ambition, influence, and naval dominance, became sources of conflict and eventual decline. The turning point came with the Peloponnesian War  (431–404 BCE), a brutal and prolonged conflict between Athens and its rival, Sparta . Fueled by political tensions and shifting alliances among Greek city-states, the war devastated the region. Athens suffered not only from military defeats but also from internal strife, a devastating plague, and the execution of major thinkers like Socrates , reflecting how fractured the city had become. Though Athens was not destroyed outright, its power was broken. Sparta’s victory in 404 BCE ended Athenian dominance, and although Athens remained culturally influential, its political and military might had been shattered. The Greek world as a whole entered a period of fragmentation and vulnerability, with Thebes , Sparta , and eventually Macedon  (under Philip II  and Alexander the Great ) stepping into power. In the wake of Alexander’s death, the once-glorious independence of Greek city-states eroded further. Athens, though still culturally revered, became a shadow of its former political self, its autonomy increasingly restricted under Hellenistic kingdoms . Meanwhile, across the western Mediterranean, a new power was rising: Rome . By the 2nd century BCE, Rome had begun to expand eastward , conquering Greek territories and absorbing their culture. In 146 BCE , after years of tension and resistance, Athens and the rest of Greece were brought under Roman rule. Though conquered, Athens was not destroyed, in fact, the Romans admired and preserved much of Greek culture. Roman elites studied in Athens, Greek art adorned Roman villas, and Athenian philosophy influenced Roman thinkers like Cicero and Seneca. Ironically, as Athens lost its independence , its ideas spread further than ever before , carried across the Roman Empire and into the foundation of Western civilization. The city no longer ruled with ships and armies, but through art, thought, and memory . A New Chapter: Cultural and Economic Shifts in Post-Classical Athens After the fall of Athens as a political powerhouse, the city entered a new phase, less defined by military strength and more by adaptation and survival . While the glory of the Classical period faded, Athens never vanished. Instead, it evolved, reshaping its identity under changing rulers and shifting global currents. Culturally, Athens remained a beacon of intellect . Even under Macedonian and later Roman rule, it held fast to its reputation as the birthplace of philosophy, drama, and art. Philosophical schools like the Academy (founded by Plato)  and the Lyceum (established by Aristotle)  continued to operate, attracting students from across the Mediterranean. Though Athenian democracy was long gone, its ideas lived on in classrooms and discourse, now more academic than political. Theaters still hosted performances, temples were still visited, and statues continued to be sculpted, though often commissioned by foreign rulers. Athens, in many ways, became a living museum , revered more for what it had once been than what it currently was. Wealthy Romans traveled there to study, collect art, or simply walk in the footsteps of Socrates. Athens had transformed from a leading power into a cultural capital  within larger empires. Economically, however, the city faced challenges. War, conquest, and shifting trade routes disrupted old industries. The loss of political independence meant Athens could no longer control maritime trade as it had during its empire. Instead, it relied on intellectual tourism, education, and the patronage of foreign elites . Schools, temples, and theaters became part of a new kind of economy! one centered on cultural prestige. Agriculture remained important, especially olive oil production, but large estates were increasingly controlled by the wealthy. In the Roman period, many Athenians found employment in crafts, teaching, and religious services . Some took on roles as scholars, scribes, and artists… keeping their traditions alive even as the power structures around them shifted. Religion also changed. While traditional gods like Athena were still honored, new mystery cults  and foreign deities gained popularity. Under Roman influence, syncretism  (the blending of religious practices) became common, reflecting a broader cultural mixing happening across the empire. Despite the upheaval, what’s remarkable about Athens during this era is its resilience . The city didn’t cling to the past blindly; it repackaged it , turning history into value. In a world where political power had moved elsewhere, Athens adapted by becoming the symbol of civilization , a place where the ancient and the new could coexist. It may not have been the Athens of Pericles, but it was still a city of ideas, and those ideas would go on to shape the world for centuries to come. Modern Athens What happens when the past refuses to stay buried? Rebirth, Resilience, and the City of Two Worlds For centuries after its classical glory faded, Athens became a quiet place, rich in ruins, poor in power. Yet in the 19th century, something remarkable happened: this ancient city was chosen to lead again. Not as a conquering empire, but as the heart of a newly reborn Greece. In doing so, Athens entered a new chapter! one of transformation, struggle, and resilience. After the Greek War of Independence  (1821–1830), the fledgling Greek state sought a capital that could symbolize national unity and cultural heritage. Though cities like Nafplio briefly served as political centers, Athens was declared the capital in 1834 , despite being a small town with just a few thousand residents. Its symbolic weight, rooted in philosophy, democracy, and ancient greatness, made it the perfect choice for a country trying to reconnect with its historical identity. Under King Otto , the Bavarian prince who became Greece’s first monarch, Athens was redesigned with the help of European architects. Neoclassical buildings  inspired by ancient temples began to line newly planned boulevards. The University of Athens , National Library , and Academy  soon followed. The city became a project of national pride ! a way to physically and culturally restore the spirit of ancient Hellas in a modern world. But Athens did not grow peacefully. The 20th century  brought waves of upheaval: political instability, wars, and vast demographic shifts. The Greco-Turkish population exchange  of the 1920s brought hundreds of thousands of refugees  to Athens, changing its urban landscape forever. Entire new districts sprang up (some overnight) as displaced Greeks from Asia Minor settled and struggled to survive. This influx strained resources but also added new flavors to Athenian identity: music, food, and working-class energy that reshaped the city’s culture. Throughout the century, Athens grew rapidly. It became the economic and industrial heart of Greece , home to factories, government buildings, and bustling marketplaces. However, unplanned urban sprawl led to overcrowding and pollution , especially by the 1970s and '80s. The once-small city now struggled with smog, traffic, and a loss of green space. Despite these issues, Athens remained vibrant, filled with life, contradiction, and creativity. A key turning point came in 2004 , when Athens hosted the Summer Olympics . This was not only a return of the games to their modern birthplace, but a massive investment in infrastructure and public image . The city saw the construction of new sports venues, highways, and the now-celebrated Athens Metro . The Eleftherios Venizelos International Airport, opened in 2001, became a major hub. For a moment, Athens was back in the global spotlight! both ancient and modern, polished and proud. But only a few years later, Athens (and Greece as a whole) faced one of its darkest modern chapters. The Greek financial crisis , beginning in 2009, led to massive unemployment, austerity measures, and waves of protest. Athens, as the capital, became the center of economic despair and social unrest . Streets filled with demonstrators, artists, and voices of resistance. Some neighborhoods decayed; others reinvented themselves as hubs of creativity and activism. And still, the city endured. In the midst of hardship, art bloomed . Abandoned buildings became galleries. Cafés turned into debate halls. Young Athenians, shaped by crisis, built grassroots projects, independent theaters, and underground music scenes. In areas like Exarchia , the spirit of rebellion met philosophy, street art, and solidarity networks, echoes, perhaps, of the city's ancient love for dialogue and dissent . Today, Athens is a city of two worlds: ancient and modern, memory and motion. The Acropolis still towers over the skyline , a stone reminder of the past. But beneath it, life goes on; messy, loud, and full of contrasts. Travelers visit for the ruins, but stay for the warmth, the stories, and the culture still being written. Athens is not a city frozen in time. It is a city that has constantly reinvented itself , surviving empires, wars, and crises, not by clinging to the past, but by learning how to live beside it . From philosophers in togas to youth with protest signs, from stone columns to neon lights, Athens remains what it has always been: a place where people come to question, create, and endure . Athens Historical Timeline Neolithic & Early Bronze Age : c. 3000 – 1600 BCE Mycenaean Period : c. 1600 – 1100 BCE Greek Dark Ages : c. 1100 – 800 BCE Archaic Period : c. 800 – 480 BCE Classical Period : 480 – 323 BCE Hellenistic Period : 323 – 146 BCE Roman Rule : 146 BCE – 330 CE Byzantine Era : 330 – 1204 CE Latin Occupation : 1204 – 1458 CE Ottoman Period : 1458 – 1833 CE Modern Era : 1834 CE – today author: The Museum of Time , Asal Mirzaei 9 august 2025, lastest update

There are many fascinating discoveries in Shahr-e Sukhteh. But we’re not just talking about artifacts and objects, we’re talking about remarkable achievements in science and art! The people of this ancient city created the world’s first known animation on pottery, performed the earliest recorded brain surgery, and achieved much more. content table: Discoveries of Shahr-e Sukhteh Mysteries of Shahr-e Sukhteh Conclusion Discoveries of Shahr-e Sukhteh One of the most mind-blowing discoveries in Shahr-e Sukhteh is the world’s earliest known artificial eyeball . Imagine this, a perfectly shaped hemispherical eye, just over 2.5 cm wide, made from a light natural mixture of bitumen and animal fat . Its surface was covered with a thin layer of gold, decorated with a circle at the center and fine golden lines spreading outward like the veins of eyes itself. The woman who wore it stood around 1.82 meters tall  (about six feet), unusually tall for her time. Tiny holes on both sides once held a golden thread to keep the eye in place. And here’s the fascinating part, under the microscope, researchers found delicate marks inside her eye socket, left by those very threads, proving she actually wore this golden eye while she was alive. Her remains date back to around 2900–2800 BCE , turning this object into more than an artifact, it’s a glimpse into innovation, beauty, and mystery from over five thousand years ago . _________________________________________________________________________ Among the treasures of Shahr-e Sukhteh, an earthen goblet  dating to around 3178 BCE  stands out for its quiet genius. Painted on its surface are a series of images that, when viewed in sequence, reveal a goat leaping toward a tree, what many believe to be the world’s first animation .  This piece belongs to Period I , the city’s earliest era, when Shahr-e Sukhteh was just beginning to flourish. Long before film or motion pictures, someone here had already captured the essence of movement and storytelling through art.  _________________________________________________________________________ Another extraordinary find is the oldest complete board game  ever discovered. Unearthed alongside four dice and twenty-seven geometric pieces, all perfectly preserved, it represents the earliest known example of a full twenty-square game set . More than a pastime, it offers a window into the minds of its players, a reflection of how they thought, competed, and connected. Archaeologists have even managed to reconstruct the board and suggest how it might have been played, reviving a game that once entertained the people of this lost city.  _________________________________________________________________________ A small stamp seal  adds another piece to the story. No written script has ever been found at the site, yet these seals reveal a sophisticated system of record-keeping and identification . They likely marked goods, agreements, or exports, the ancient equivalent of signatures or official emblems. Such discoveries suggest that Shahr-e Sukhteh was far from isolated; it was organized, connected, and actively engaged in regional trade.  _________________________________________________________________________ Equally fascinating is a ruler , simple in form but extraordinary in precision. Marked accurately to half a millimeter (0.5 mm) , it demonstrates a remarkable understanding of measurement and craftsmanship more than 5,000 years ago . It’s proof that the people of Shahr-e Sukhteh valued order, accuracy, and beauty in everything they created. Even the city’s structure speaks of intelligence and foresight.  _________________________________________________________________________ Beneath the ground, archaeologists uncovered a network of clay sewer pipes , an early example of urban engineering. These pipes carried wastewater away from residential areas, showing a deep concern for hygiene, structure, and organized living, a level of civic planning far beyond what we expect from such an ancient world.  _________________________________________________________________________ From the golden eye of a mysterious woman to the precision of a ruler and the flow of a forgotten sewer system, every discovery whispers the same truth:  Shahr-e Sukhteh wasn’t merely a city of the past, it was a civilization far ahead of its time , quietly shaping the early chapters of human progress. Mysteries of Shahr-e Sukhteh There are also things that were never  found in Shahr-e Sukhteh, and they’re just as revealing as the treasures that were. Objects you’d expect in every ancient city are simply missing here, as if the people of this place chose a different way to live. The most astonishing absence is that of weapons . Not a single sword, spear, dagger, or arrowhead has ever been unearthed. No shields, no armor, no evidence of war or defense. You can’t help but wonder, how did they protect themselves? But the truth is, they might not have needed to. Excavations also revealed no palaces or royal tombs , no sign of a ruling class or centralized authority. There are no temples or monumental religious structures , and no idols or altars that suggest organized worship. In a world where kings carved their names into stone and gods demanded offerings, Shahr-e Sukhteh stands silent, a city without hierarchy, without a throne, and without divine intermediaries. Even the art and burials reflect this equality. Graves show no extreme differences in wealth or status , no golden masks for the elite, no mass graves for the poor. The people were buried with care, but not extravagance, each one treated with the same quiet dignity. There’s also a notable lack of fortifications or defensive walls  around the settlement. Most ancient cities were protected by strong barriers, yet here the landscape lies open. It seems Shahr-e Sukhteh wasn’t built for war or fear, it was built for living, trading, and creating. And perhaps most curiously, no written script  has ever been found. Not a single tablet, inscription, or sign system to record their language. Yet they used stamp seals , proving they still managed trade, ownership, and communication in their own ingenious way, without the written word. All these absences tell their own story. Shahr-e Sukhteh appears to have been a peaceful, cooperative, and egalitarian society , one that valued creation over domination and harmony over control. A city without kings, without weapons, without temples, but full of artistry, precision, and human intelligence. It’s a reminder that civilization doesn’t always begin with conquest or hierarchy. Sometimes, it begins with balance... Conclusion Shahr-e Sukhteh is more than an archaeological site, it’s a mirror held up to humanity’s earliest imagination. In every golden thread, every painted goblet, and every silent grave, there’s a whisper of people who built a world without kings or wars, yet full of art, science, and empathy. They engineered their city with precision, measured to half a millimeter. They created the first animation, the first artificial eye, and perhaps the first organized games, all without leaving behind a single word. Their story survives not through texts or monuments, but through objects that speak for them . And maybe that’s what makes Shahr-e Sukhteh so hauntingly beautiful. It wasn’t a civilization built to rule, it was a civilization built to live. A place where innovation met equality, and progress didn’t need power to exist. In the dust of the Burnt City, we don’t just uncover artifacts, we uncover a vision of humanity at its most peaceful and creative.A reminder that even five thousand years ago, there were people who chose knowledge over conquest, and harmony over hierarchy. author: The Museum of Time , Asal Mirzaei 6 November 2025, lastest update

When you think of the women in a Tudor or Elizabethan court, what comes to your mind?   If you’re anything like me, you probably picture rich, red beaded gowns, long grey-stoned halls, grand banquets, and lively dances, something cinematic, almost worthy of a picture frame. But let’s shift our focus for a moment, away from the queens and kings, and instead toward the maids and companions: those who made it to court, but not into our textbooks, unless they later became someone more “noble.” While it’s true that we don’t have many detailed records of their day-to-day lives, we do have some surviving clues. The banquet of Henry VIII in York Place (Whitehall Palace), 1832, by James Stephanoff The Tudor era spanned from 1485 to 1603, beginning with the reign of Henry VII and ending with Elizabeth I, the start of what became known as the Elizabethan Age. During this time, politics and English culture underwent a dramatic transformation. From the early days of this new dynasty, we see the English Reformation and, later, the unification of England. It was an age marked by multiple monarchs, royal scandals, and endless intrigue, yet it was often the women, the quiet observers who knew the ins and outs of court life, whose stories remain the least explored. Content table : Lady-in-Waiting to a Queen of the Tudor and Elizabethan Court Where the Role Originated Conclusion Lady-in-Waiting to a Queen of the Tudor and Elizabethan Court What did it truly mean to serve a queen? Explore the duties, ranks, and secrets of those who stood closest to the crown. So often, a lady-in-waiting is depicted as doing nothing more than dutifully following her queen, helping her change into her glorious garments, sitting quietly with hands folded neatly, dressed to impress but never to draw attention. While that may have been true for some, for most, this role was no small task. The position could consume one’s entire life, often granting access to moments and secrets that could never be repeated. In some noble households, a lady-in-waiting might take on more physical or domestic labor, but serving a queen was a far more refined and demanding station, you were, after all, in the company of royalty. The role of the lady-in-waiting evolved between the Tudor and Elizabethan eras. By Elizabeth’s reign, there were several ranks of ladies-in-waiting, each with a different level of closeness and value to the queen. At the lowest level was the maid of honour , whose duties included performing dances and songs, as well as carrying messages for the queen. At the highest level stood the royal lady-in-waiting , chosen from the most noble families in England. Their service was not rewarded with money, but with political influence, prestige, and proximity to power. Their primary responsibility was to serve as companions to the queen and to impress visiting dignitaries with their grace and refinement. It was customary for a queen to have multiple maids of honour and ladies-in-waiting. And, as was often the case in the Tudor era, at least one among them might catch the king’s attention, and sometimes, become his mistress. Where the Role Originated How did this remarkable position come to exist, and what kind of woman could earn her place beside the crown? The role of the lady-in-waiting emerged during the Middle Ages, growing alongside the expansion of queenly households. These attendants were women for a practical reason, their duties often involved matters of personal hygiene and other intimate tasks. They were also responsible for sewing “unmentionables,” making the role unsuitable for men. In the beginning, such a position came with a modest salary. But it wasn’t long before the idea took hold that only women of elevated status were worthy of such close contact (physical or social) with royalty. If you wished to become a lady-in-waiting, there were a few requirements to meet. First: you had to be of noble birth, or at least attractive enough to pass as such. Second: you needed the ability to perform, to sing, dance, or read for the queen. And third: you had to be proficient in multiple languages. When it came to politics, discretion was everything. A lady-in-waiting was expected to hold no opinions of her own, and to maintain the highest moral standards while surrounded by scandal and intrigue. Of course, from our modern perspective, we know just how much political influence some of these women truly held. From becoming the king’s lovers to managing delicate palace secrets, their proximity to power often gave them a voice (albeit a quiet one) in shaping the most favorable outcomes behind the scenes. Conclusion To be a lady-in-waiting is to be the companion, confidante, and administrative assistant of a queen. To be a lady-in-waiting is to hold power, even when those on the outside do not see it. You hold power at your fingertips, with the ability to hear and see what others cannot, with advantages others can only dream of. But you must be careful to avoid the scandal that will follow your name if you play your part wrong. There is no faster way to harm a queen than through the betrayal of those closest to her. Author: The Museum of Time, Ava McCloskey  1 November 2025, lastest update

Buried beneath the sands of southeastern Iran lies Shahr-e Sukhteh , the Burnt City, a 5,000-year-old civilization once filled with innovation, art, and trade. But for centuries, it remained forgotten, its secrets sealed beneath layers of ash and time. The story of its rediscovery begins not with ancient kings, but with modern explorers and archaeologists who devoted their lives to uncovering the truth behind its ruins. From Aurel Stein’s first glimpse of its scorched soil to the tireless Iranian excavations of the late 20th century, their efforts turned a nameless desert mound into one of the most important archaeological sites in the world. Content table: Excavation History Archaeology of Shahe-e Sukhteh the I period the II period the III period the IV period Conclusion The team of Istituto Italiano per l’Africa e l’Oriente (IsIAO) Excavation history  Who were the first to uncover the Burnt City buried beneath centuries of silence, and what did they risk to bring Shahr-e Sukhteh back to life? The story of Shahr-e Sukhteh’s discovery begins with Sir Aurel Stein , the first archaeologist to explore Iran in depth. He visited the country four times in the early 20th century, mapping ancient routes and studying forgotten civilizations. His book “Old Routes of Western Iran”  records his journeys in Iran. During his fourth expedition (1935–1936), Stein ventured into the eastern parts of Iran and discovered the mysterious “Burnt City,” or Shahr-e Sukhteh. Despite being in his sixties, he worked with great passion, assisted by the Iranian archaeologist Bahram Karimi (بهرام کریمی) . However, they only worked at the site for four days. Decades later, in 1967 , a group of Italian archaeologists led by Maurizio Tosi  began the first official excavations at Shahr-e Sukhteh. Their team, called the Istituto Italiano per l’Africa e l’Oriente (IsIAO)  which is translated as “the Italian Institute for Africa and the East”, excavated the site for 11 years, completing ten archaeological seasons. Unfortunately, their work came to an abrupt stop with the outbreak of the Iranian Islamic Revolution , and the site remained untouched for the next 19 years. Finally, in 1997 , excavations were resumed by an Iranian team led by Dr. Seyyed Mansour Seyyed Sajjadi , marking a new era of research at Shahr-e Sukhteh. Dr. Sajjadi had been one of the young archaeologists in the Istituto Italiano per l’Africa e l’Oriente (IsIAO)  team who had previously worked on the Burnt City. When he first joined the excavations at Shahr-e Sukhteh, he was only 24 years old ! But for now, let’s talk about his own team . they worked in extremely harsh conditions, which caused Dr. Seyyed Mansour Seyyed Sajjadi to lose 80% of the vision in his left eye during the excavation. The team endured hunger, thirst, and sandstorms while continuing their research. However, Dr. Sajjadi has said many times that he is not sad about his injury. He transformed a small guard room into what is now the Museum of Shahr-e Sukhteh , which has grown into a thriving center. Today, almost 120 families  work there in different jobs, and nearby villages in the Sistan Plain  now have access to water and electricity . His team worked on the site for 12 years , but unfortunately, only about 5 or 7% of the city  has been excavated so far. Archaeology of   Shahr-e Sukhteh What secrets lie beneath the ashes of Shahr-e Sukhteh, and how did this ancient city rise, burn, and rebuild itself across the ages? Now that we know the story of the excavations and the people behind them, let’s turn our attention to the city itself. The settlement of Shahr-e Sukhteh  first emerged around 3550 BCE  and experienced three major fires  before its eventual abandonment. Earlier Italian research suggested that the city was deserted around 1800 BCE , but more recent studies by archaeologists Barbara Helwing  and Hassan Fazeli Nashli  indicate that its decline likely occurred much earlier, around 2350–2300 BCE . This remarkable city was carefully organized into four main parts : a central area  covering about 20 hectares , a residential zone  of roughly 16 hectares , an industrial district  in the northeast , and a cemetery  in the southwest , spanning about 20–25 hectares . eastern residential area As mentioned by archaeologist Dr. Sajjadi , the residential area  of Shahr-e Sukhteh lies on the highest part of the site . Pottery belonging to Period I  was discovered here during excavations in the Eastern Residential Area , located just north of the Burnt Building. At the heart of the settlement stood the Great Central Area , also known as the Central Quarters , which was separated from the western, southern, and eastern zones by deep natural depressions. Within these central quarters, archaeologists identified a structure they call the “House of the Jars.”  Among the vessels found there was a remarkable Kot Dijian jar , linking Shahr-e Sukhteh to wider cultural networks of the Bronze Age. To the southwest  lies the Graveyard Area , or the Cemetery of Shahr-e Sukhteh , one of the largest known burial grounds of its time. It covers a vast area and is estimated to contain between 25,000 and 40,000 graves . Most burials belong to Periods I and II , though a smaller number date to the later phases of the city’s history. In the northwestern part  of the site is the Craftsmen’s Quarter , the industrial zone of the city. Here, artisans once worked with stone, clay, and metal, producing the everyday and luxury goods that made Shahr-e Sukhteh so renowned. Nearby, to the east of this quarter , stands the Monumental Area , distinguished by several high mounds that mark the remains of important public or ceremonial buildings. Archaeologists also discovered pottery kilns  near and around this area, though evidence suggests that most ceramic production took place outside the main settlement , perhaps in specialized workshops nearby. The diversion of the Hirmand River  during floods and the gradual rise of surface salts , which acted like a natural mortar, helped preserve the city’s monuments and artifacts. These unique environmental factors are among the key reasons why Shahr-e Sukhteh remains so well-preserved today. As one of the largest cities of the early urban era , Shahr-e Sukhteh offers fascinating insights into ancient urban strategy , the way early civilizations planned, rebuilt, and adapted their cities in the face of natural disasters such as earthquakes, wildfires, or floods. When destruction struck, its inhabitants didn’t have modern tools or technology to rebuild from scratch. Instead, they adapted resourcefully: constructing new roads, building houses atop older foundations, and reorganizing the city layout to fit their changing needs. With each catastrophe, the city evolved, a testament to the resilience and ingenuity  of its people, who practiced complex urban planning long before modern engineering was even imagined. Archaeologists have uncovered 11 distinct layers  within the site, corresponding to four major eras of urban life , all built upon one another in the same enduring settlement. urban strategy table of shahr-e sukhteh The I period The first era marked the birth of this extraordinary city, represented by layers 8, 9, and 10, dating to around 3550–3100 BCE. During this time, Shahr-e Sukhteh likely covered an area of 10–10.5 hectares and began forming connections with other settlements in the Kandahar region, southern Turkmenistan, the Bampur Valley, and beyond. Archaeological evidence also reveals links between Shahr-e Sukhteh and the Proto-Elamite cities of Khuzestan and Fars Province, emphasizing the city’s early role in regional exchange networks. It was during this era that people started building houses and transforming their small village into the thriving urban center we know today. Pottery workshops expanded rapidly, producing ceramics that were traded with nearby cities for profit. As we know, Shahr-e Sukhteh became a wealthy city, and much of its prosperity stemmed from this growing trade network. The final century of the first period, around 3100 BCE to 3000 BCE, marked the true beginning of its remarkable trades. The II period  This period covers layers 5, 6, and 7, roughly between 3100 and 2620 BCE. The 7th layer, dated from 3100 to 3000 BCE, was like a bridge between two different eras of life in the Burnt City. By the time we reach the 5th layer, the city has grown into an impressive 80 hectares (about 200 acres). During this time, Shahr-e Sukhteh  began expanding its trade network, reaching the pre-Harappan centers of the Indus Valley , while still keeping its earlier connections with the Bampur Valley . The trade routes grew wider, the exchanges richer, and the city itself became wealthier and more active than ever. In Phase 6 , the settlement went through a big reconstruction. Some of the houses that had been destroyed were never rebuilt, but new structures appeared, showing how the city kept changing and adapting. It also seems that Shahr-e Sukhteh had close contact with Mundigak , another major settlement of the time. Through this route, lapis lazuli  was likely brought from the Badakhshan mines , passing through Mundigak before reaching Shahr-e Sukhteh. Because of these strong cultural and economic ties, archaeologists often speak of a shared Helmand Civilization  that connected these regions. In this same era, Area 33 , one of the main residential parts of the city, revealed a lot about Shahr-e Sukhteh’s architectural growth, especially after the first major fire around 2700 BCE . Houses became larger and more organized, often with several rooms and open courtyards. Like most Bronze Age Persian architecture, they were built using the traditional mudbrick technique , giving the city its distinctive earthy look. By the time we reach Phases 5 and 6 , everything in Shahr-e Sukhteh feels more connected, more alive. The city was thriving, bigger, busier, and more innovative. The 7th phase  marks the start of what could be called the golden age  of the Burnt City. Alongside its beautiful pottery, people began producing jewelry  and refining their ceramic technology . They used finer materials and better firing techniques, resulting in pottery with denser, smoother surfaces. Most of the ceramics from this time (whether made locally or imported) were buff and gray wares  decorated in shades of brown and black . The III period  This period covers the late 4th layer and continues through layers 3 and early 2 , lasting roughly two centuries , from about 2600 to 2400 BCE . It represents the third stage of urban development in Shahr-e Sukhteh , when the city reached the peak of its cultural and architectural sophistication. Phase 4  is often seen as a transitional stage , bridging the end of the second era and the beginning of the third. It was a relatively short phase, lasting perhaps a single generation, between 2620 and 2600 BCE ! but it marked a significant change. During this time, large buildings with thick surrounding walls were constructed, pottery styles evolved, and the once-painted decorations gave way to simpler, more standardized forms. Burials began to reflect growing social and economic differences, showing that the community had become more structured and stratified. Interestingly, the imported goods from Mesopotamia  and western Iran , which had been common before, seem to vanish by the end of this phase. Moving into Phases 3 and 2 , we see the continuation of many features introduced earlier. Buildings remained large, still enclosed by substantial walls, and the overall architectural style did not change drastically  from Phase 4. The settlement pattern became more organized, and evidence suggests that social hierarchy continued to shape everyday life. The city also maintained its trade connections  with Mundigak , the Bampur Valley , and the Indus Civilization , keeping Shahr-e Sukhteh active within the broader Helmand cultural network. What’s particularly fascinating about Phase 3  is the evolution of pottery . Ceramics from this time show new forms and motifs that differ greatly from earlier periods. Early in this phase, the simple decorations of previous eras became more elaborate. By the end of the period, gray-paste pottery with black decoration  became common, along with small, thin-walled bowls  that were often left undecorated, a sign of growing refinement in craftsmanship and technique. This era is often described as the golden age of Shahr-e Sukhteh . The city began producing its own high-quality artifacts : delicate jewelry and beads, fine ceramics, stone vessels, and metal tools. Architecture also became more planned with residential areas , craft districts , and public buildings  arranged in a more systematic way. Some large structures with multiple rooms and courtyards may have served administrative or communal purposes . Several extraordinary discoveries belong to this time: the board game , the artificial eye , and even evidence of surgical practices , all testifying to the intellectual and technological achievements of its people. Social differences became more visible in burial practices . Some graves were richly furnished with jewelry, decorated vessels, and exotic materials, while others were modest, showing the clear presence of wealth and class distinctions. Despite all this prosperity, the end of the third period shows signs of gradual decline . Environmental changes, shifts in trade routes, or internal challenges may have weakened the city’s stability, leading slowly toward the decline and eventual abandonment that followed in later centuries. Even Building 33 , located in Area 33  between the Central and Monumental Quarters, belongs to this flourishing time. It was radiocarbon-dated  by Enrico Ascalone’s team to around 2600–2450 BCE , perfectly fitting into the city’s golden age. The IV period This era marks the final chapter  in the life of Shahr-e Sukhteh , the time when the once-great city slowly shrank into a small village and, eventually, disappeared altogether. By then, the Helmand River  and the ancient inland sea of southeastern Persia  were drying up, leaving the region without the water resources that had once sustained its people. This period includes the late 2nd layer  through layers 1 and 0 , covering roughly 2400 to 2000–1800 BCE . During Period IV  (around 2400–2300 BCE ), excavations uncovered what archaeologists call the “Burnt Palace”  or “Burnt Building.”  Evidence from this time shows that Shahr-e Sukhteh’s contacts were now limited mostly to the Bampur Valley  and the Kandahar region , as seen in the distinctive Bampur V and VI pottery  found on site. In 1972, archaeologists discovered several processing workshops  in the city’s western quarters, containing large concentrations of flint, lapis lazuli, and turquoise . These workshops are unique in the region and show that, even in its final centuries, Shahr-e Sukhteh remained a place of craftsmanship and trade, though on a smaller scale. Between the first phase  and phase 0 , there was a clear gap! a period of abandonment . Recent excavations by Enrico Ascalone  in Area 33  revealed this phase of abandonment, radiocarbon-dated to 2450–2350 BCE . However, archaeologist Massimo Vidale  considers this the last phase of full urban life  in Shahr-e Sukhteh, the final moment when the city still functioned as a true settlement before fading away. Later excavations by Iranian archaeologists Dr. Sajjadi  and Hossein Moradi  (2014–2015) uncovered a system of semi-columns  in a long passage between two buildings in Area 26 , belonging to Period IV . Vidale believes this structure may have been part of a palatial compound , remarkably similar to one discovered years earlier in Mehrgarh , dated around 2500 BCE  by a French archaeological mission. According to Ascalone, after a long abandonment between 2350 and 2200 BCE , the Burnt Building  appears to have been reoccupied  in phase 0 (ca. 2100–2000 BCE) . This dating, first proposed by Raffaele Biscione  in 1979, may indicate a brief survival of the older urban center, though Vidale suggests that the urban system itself had already collapsed  by around 2350 BCE . Earlier excavators Maurizio Tosi  and Raffaele Biscione  also believed the Burnt Building met its end in a destructive fire  around 2000 BCE , closing the final chapter of Shahr-e Sukhteh’s remarkable story. Conclusion Today, after decades of excavation, only about five percent  of Shahr-e Sukhteh has been unearthed, yet even that small portion has rewritten what we know about early urban life in the Bronze Age. Every jar, every wall, every grave tells a story of resilience, knowledge, and connection across ancient civilizations. The work of Aurel Stein, Maurizio Tosi, and Dr. Seyyed Mansour Seyyed Sajjadi revealed not just an ancient city, but a mirror of human ingenuity, proof that even in the harshest deserts, culture and creativity can flourish. But our exploration doesn’t end here. What have archaeologists actually found  inside this mysterious city, the artifacts, tools, and secrets buried beneath the ashes? author: The Museum of Time , Asal Mirzaei 30 October 2025, lastest update

Ancient Greek relief of Athena (ΑΘΗΝΑ), goddess of wisdom and war. Ever noticed how sometimes she’s called Athena, and other times Athene? If you’ve wondered which one is correct... or if there’s even a difference at all! well, you're not alone! You’ve probably seen the goddess’s name written both as Athena  and Athene . The question is... are they both correct, or is one the “real” name? The answer is that both forms are legitimate; the difference lies in history, dialect, and language traditions. In ancient Greece, her name varied depending on the time period and the region. In Homer’s epic poetry, she appears as Ἀθήνη (Athḗnē) , which we render in English as Athene . Later, in Classical Athens, the name was written as Ἀθηνᾶ (Athēnâ) , the form that eventually gave us the modern “Athena.” So Athene  is the older, more poetic form, while Athena  is the streamlined version that became standard in Athenian and later Roman-influenced contexts. When Greek mythology entered Latin and then English literature, Athena  became the more common spelling, especially in academic and popular works in English. However, in German and certain other European languages, Athene  remained the preferred form, which is why you may still encounter it in art history books, scholarly texts, and older translations. It’s important to note that the difference is purely linguistic. Both names refer to the same goddess, the wise and strategic warrior, protector of Athens, and patron of crafts. Whether you choose “Athena” or “Athene” depends on your audience and style. In most modern English writing, “Athena” will be more familiar, while “Athene” can lend a classical or literary touch. So, in short: both are authentic, both are historically accurate, and the choice is yours. The goddess herself hasn’t changed! It's only the way her name has been written over the centuries. author: The Museum of Time , Asal Mirzaei 11 august 2025, lastest update

Long before Artemis roamed the forests with her bow, and before Apollo’s golden light touched the world, there was a love story that defied the wrath of a queen. Zeus, king of the gods, and the gentle Titaness Leto, faced jealousy, danger, and endless wandering… all to bring forth the divine twins Artemis and Apollo... who would forever change the balance of sky and earth. Content table  The Divine Parents of Artemis and Apollo The Birth Story The Divine Balance The Divine Parents of Artemis and Apollo In the vast world of Greek mythology, few figures stand as tall as Zeus , king of the gods. Ruler of Olympus, Zeus was the god of the sky, thunder, and law, yet he was also infamous for his countless loves and complicated affairs. His relationships often sparked both creation and conflict, shaping the myths of Greece in ways both wondrous and tragic. Among the many women who crossed Zeus’s path, one was the Titaness Leto , daughter of the ancient Titans Coeus and Phoebe. Unlike some of Zeus’s fiery or tumultuous romances, his bond with Leto is remembered for its quiet elegance. Leto was celebrated for her gentleness, modesty, and radiant beauty! she carried a serene strength that set her apart from the more dramatic figures of Olympus. When Leto became pregnant by Zeus, however, peace quickly gave way to chaos. Zeus’s wife, the goddess Hera, was enraged. Known for her jealousy, Hera unleashed her wrath not on Zeus, but on Leto, the vulnerable expectant mother. From this moment, Leto’s story became one of endurance and divine struggle. The union of Zeus and Leto was not just another fleeting romance. From it would come two of the most important gods of Greek mythology! Artemis , goddess of the hunt and moon, and Apollo , god of the sun, music, and prophecy. Their births were destined to shift the balance of the Greek pantheon, embodying the eternal dance between light and shadow, wilderness and civilization. Ever wondered about the birth of the divine twins, the sun and the moon ? The Birth Story of Divine Twins Artemis and Apollo Well, few tales are as dramatic and magical as the birth of Artemis and Apollo . It all began with Leto , the gentle and radiant Titaness, carrying the children of Zeus, king of the gods. While their union was fated, it immediately drew the ire of Zeus’s wife, Hera , whose jealousy knew no bounds. Furious that Leto would bear children by another, Hera cursed her… no land beneath the sun would welcome her, and no place would allow her to give birth. Forced into a desperate journey, Leto wandered the lands and seas, seeking refuge wherever she could. She traveled through islands and mainland Greece, facing repeated rejection. Each city feared Hera’s wrath, leaving the expectant goddess in a state of uncertainty and pain. Yet Leto’s resolve never wavered; her patience and dignity shone through the darkness cast by Hera’s anger. At last, a solution appeared: the floating island of Delos , not yet anchored to the earth, offered sanctuary. Because it was unattached, it escaped Hera’s curse. Leto gratefully took refuge on this barren rock, which would soon be transformed forever by the presence of the divine twins. According to myth, Artemis was born first , entering the world with grace and strength. Remarkably, she did not rest after her own birth. Instead, she became a midwife for her mother, assisting in the delivery of her twin brother, Apollo . This early act of care set the stage for Artemis’s lifelong role as protector of women and children, especially during childbirth. When Apollo was born, radiant and shining, he brought with him the light of the sun, music, prophecy, and reason, a perfect counterpart to Artemis’s moonlit, wild, and untamed energy. The birth of the twins transformed Delos from a simple floating rock into a sacred island. The presence of Artemis and Apollo brought blessings, and the island became a center of worship, forever linked to the divine siblings. Their arrival marked the balance of opposites: moon and sun, wilderness and civilization, instinct and reason. From that moment, the world of gods and humans alike would be shaped by their influence, with Artemis reigning over the forests and hunting grounds, and Apollo illuminating the skies and hearts of mortals. Thus, from hardship, fear, and Hera’s jealousy, came the birth of two of the most powerful and enduring figures of Greek mythology , whose stories would inspire generations for millennia to come. The Divine Balance From the moment they were born, Artemis and Apollo  were destined to embody forces far greater than themselves. Artemis, entering the world first, carried with her a wild, untamed energy. She was swift, vigilant, and independent… an instinctual protector of nature, women, and children. Apollo, born just after her, radiated brilliance, calm, and reason, his presence shining like the sun he would one day represent. The gods watched these twins grow and recognized a cosmic balance in their abilities. Artemis moved effortlessly through the forests, chasing prey with her bow and arrow, commanding the wilderness with grace and authority. She was a goddess of the moon, not yet in name but in essence: her light soft but constant, guiding those in the dark, wild places. Apollo, on the other hand, brought warmth, clarity, and order. He inspired music, poetry, prophecy, and the steady rhythm of the sun. As their powers matured, the connection between them became clear. Artemis, associated with the night and mystery, embodied independence, instinct, and protection. Apollo, embodying the day and illumination, symbolized reason, knowledge, and guidance. Together, they represented a cosmic duality! moon and sun, shadow and light, intuition and logic. This pairing emphasized the harmony between opposites, showing that each force was essential to the world. Legends tell that Apollo’s golden chariot would ride across the sky each day, illuminating the earth and guiding mortals, while Artemis would follow the night, her silver light protecting forests, animals, and travelers. Even in their divine duties, their bond remained strong; the sun could not shine without the moon’s quiet reflection, and the moon’s glow was made meaningful by the sun’s brilliance. Through their unique powers and shared purpose, Artemis and Apollo became more than just twins, they were eternal symbols of balance. Artemis’s connection to the moon made her a guardian of nature and women, while Apollo’s light brought knowledge and clarity. Together, they exemplified the beauty of complementary forces, a reminder that the universe thrives not in one single power, but in the harmony of many. author: The Museum of Time , Asal Mirzaei 25 august 2025, lastest update

Few historical figures are as famous for a single phrase as Marie Antoinette, the last queen of France before the Revolution. When people hear her name, they often immediately think of the line: “Let them eat cake.”  The story goes that, when told the French peasants had no bread, she heartlessly replied that they could simply eat cake instead. But did she really say this? Or is it just a myth that has stuck around for centuries? Let’s break it down. Élisabeth Louise Vigée Le Brun, Marie Antoinette in a Chemise Dress But Did Marie Antoinette Really Said “Let Them Eat Cake”? Content table :  The Origins of the Quote Did She Really Said It? Why This Myth Survives The Truth About the Young Queen Conclusion The Origins of the Quote The phrase “Let them eat cake” is most often heard in English, but in French, it was originally written as “Qu’ils mangent de la brioche.” Brioche wasn’t cake in the modern sense; it was a luxurious, enriched bread made with eggs and butter. In the 18th century, bread was the basic staple of the French diet. When bread prices soared due to poor harvests, famine followed. Suggesting peasants switch to brioche wasn’t just unrealistic; it sounded insulting and ignorant. But here’s the twist! The phrase shows up long before Marie Antoinette ever set foot in France. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, the Enlightenment philosopher, included the line in his Confessions , written around 1766. In it, he recalls that a “great princess” supposedly made the remark. At that time, Marie Antoinette was only a child living in Austria, years away from becoming Queen of France. Historians point out that Rousseau’s manuscript wasn’t even published until 1782, by which point France was already deep in financial and social crisis. Some scholars think Rousseau invented the story as a literary device, a way to criticize the wealthy elite and show how out of touch they could be. Others believe he might have been repeating gossip about an earlier French princess, possibly Maria Theresa of Spain or Marie-Thérèse, wife of Louis XIV. Either way, the evidence is clear: the infamous words didn’t originate with Marie Antoinette. Instead, they were later pinned on her to fuel revolutionary anger. Did She Really Say "Let Them Eat Cake"? The short answer is no! Marie Antoinette never said “Let them eat cake.” Historians have found no record of her uttering those words, and the phrase appeared in Rousseau’s writings years before she was even queen. In reality, her letters show concern for the poor, and she often supported charitable works. Still, as a symbol of royal extravagance, she became an easy target during the Revolution. The quote stuck because it captured the anger of the people, but it’s more myth than truth—a powerful story rather than a historical fact. Why This Myth Survives Even though Marie Antoinette never said “Let them eat cake,” the phrase has lived on for centuries. It’s short, catchy, and perfectly illustrates the image of a careless, out-of-touch aristocrat. People love stories that are dramatic and easy to remember, and this one fits the bill. Over time, writers, journalists, and educators repeated it, often without checking the facts, cementing it in popular culture. The line also reflects the real frustrations of the French people at the time, so even if it’s false, it resonates emotionally. Myths like this survive because they tell a story we want to believe. The Truth About the Young Queen Marie Antoinette’s life was far more complicated than the infamous quote suggests. She wasn’t just a careless, out-of-touch queen; she was also a young woman thrown into immense pressure and scrutiny. Married to Louis XVI at just 14, she became the target of constant gossip, political attacks, and public suspicion. While she lived in the luxury of Versailles, she also tried to support charitable causes, especially for children and the poor. It’s important to remember that she was part of a monarchy facing enormous financial and social problems, many of which were centuries in the making. Revolutionaries seized on her image as a symbol of royal excess, turning her into a scapegoat for the hardships faced by ordinary people. Marie Antoinette was human, with flaws like anyone else, but she was also a victim of circumstance. The “let them eat cake” myth overshadowed her real life, painting her as cruel when the truth is far more nuanced. Understanding her story helps us see the difference between sensationalized history and reality. It reminds us to look beyond catchy phrases before judging someone. The Impact of the Myth on History The myth of Marie Antoinette's supposed words has had lasting effects on how we view historical figures. It shows how easily misinformation can spread and take root in our collective consciousness. This story has become a cautionary tale about the power of narratives. It highlights how a single phrase can shape the legacy of an individual, often overshadowing their true character and contributions. In our modern world, we face similar challenges. Misinformation spreads rapidly through social media and other platforms. Just like the myth of Marie Antoinette, these stories can shape public perception and influence opinions. We must be vigilant and seek the truth, especially when it comes to historical narratives. Lessons from Marie Antoinette's Life Marie Antoinette's story teaches us valuable lessons about empathy and understanding. She was a complex figure, navigating a world filled with challenges and expectations. Her life reminds us that people are often more than the labels we assign to them. When we hear a catchy phrase or story, it's essential to dig deeper. What lies beneath the surface? What context is missing? By exploring these questions, we can foster a more nuanced understanding of history and the people who shaped it. Conclusion So, did Marie Antoinette ever really say “Let them eat cake?” The answer is a clear no. The phrase existed decades before she became queen and was later attached to her as a tool for revolutionary propaganda. While she did enjoy the luxury of Versailles, she also cared about the poor, supported charitable projects, and faced enormous pressure as a young queen in a foreign land. The myth survives because it’s catchy, dramatic, and easy to remember, but history shows her life was far more nuanced. Marie Antoinette was more than a single infamous phrase; she was a complex figure shaped by her times. author: The Museum of Time , Asal Mirzaei 5 September 2025, latest update